POE – PRA

Volume II, pages 415–433 of the 1732 edition, from POE to PRA: everything printed on these pages, in order.

Continued from Poetry of the Hebrews

nion has been espoused by a good Number of Partisans. Others maintain, that in the old Hebrew Verses there is neither Measure nor Feet to be found. Scaliger even affirms, that their Language, as well as Scalig. Animad. in Chronic. Eufeb. p. 7. col. 1.those of the Syrians, Arabians, and Abyssins, is not capable of the Restraint of Feet or Measures. Austin of Eugubium says, that the Hebrews have neither Heroick Verses, nor Iambicks, nor of any other Measure; but only something that resembles it, like the Songs of barbarous Nations. This Opinion is supported by Louis Capel, Martin Martinius, Samuel Bohlius, Wasmurh, Aust. Pfeiffer, and some others. Grotius¹ also declares for this, and is indeed the Sentiment which we think the most probable. See our Dissertation upon the Hebrew Poetry, prefix’d to our Commentary upon Exodus, and the Authors we have already cited.

As to the Poetry of the modern Hebrews, the Reader may consult the Grammarians, and particularly Buxtorf’s Thesaurus, which gives the Rules of it, and the several Kinds into which it is divided. See also Morini Exercit. Biblic. l. 2. Exer. 18. c. 7. p. 537, &c.

POETS. There is no Doubt to be made, but that the antient Hebrews had their Poets; and we have still remaining in the Bible a good Number of Canticles, and other Pieces of Poetry. What seems to me very remarkable is this, that all their Poetry is dedicated, by the Application they have made of it, to the Celebrating of the Greatness of God, and the Magnificence of his Works. The Hebrew Poets, so many of ‘em at least as have any Works handed down to us, were all Men inspired of God. We find among them, Kings, Law-givers, Prophets. Moses, Baruch, David, Solomon, Hezekiah, Job, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and most of the Prophets, have composed Poems or Pieces in Verse. And what kind of Poetry? why, the most pompous, the most majestick; and the most sublime that can be conceived. The Expression, the Sentiments, the Figures, the Variety, the Action, every thing is surprizing. But as to the Laws of this Poetry, they are entirely unknown to us, as has been observed before.

Aristot. Rhet. l. 3. c. 17. Diogen. Laert. l. 1. Plutarch. in Solone. Tit. i. 12.St. Paul gives to the Pagan Poets the Name of Prophets. One of themselves, even a Prophet of their own said, &c. Because among the Heathen, Poets were what Prophets were among the Hebrews. They were look’d upon as inspir’d, and animated with the Spirit of Apollo. They spoke by Enthusiasm, Oracles were commonly deliver’d in Verse, the Poets were the Interpreters of the Wills of the Gods.

The Poet quoted here by St. Paul, is Epimenides. The Antients relate many Particulars of him, which prove, that they esteem’d him as an inspir’d Person, and favour’d by the Gods. Aristotle says, that he did not indeed foretell future Events, but that he discover’d Things that were past and unknown. Diogenes Laertius and Plutarch give an Account, that seeing the Fort of Munichium, which is the Port of Athens, he cry’d out, O the Blindness of Men! If the Athenians could but foresee the Misfortunes that this Fort will create to them, they would demolish it with their Teeth. The Truth of these Words was evinced some Years after, when King Antigonus placed a Garison there, to curb the City of Athens. Another Time he encouraged the Athenians, who were in Apprehension of an Invasion from the Persians. He told them, that it would be ten Years before they came, and that then they would be obliged to return again, after having suffer’d great Losses. He also foretold to the Lacedemonians and Cretans, the Captivity to which the Arcadians should one Day reduce them. ‘Twas probably from such Predictions Diogen. Laert. l. 1. Acts xvii. 28. Τὸ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμὲν.as these, whether true or false, that made the Greeks consider Epimenides as a Prophet, and which were a Reason to St. Paul for his giving him the same Appellation, whether by way of Irony, or otherwise.

The same Apostle quotes the Poet Aratus, who was a Native of Cilicia as well as himself. He cites these Words from him, We are the Children and the Race of God. Ipsius enim & genus sumus. This is but a part of a longer Passage, the Sense of which is this: We must begin from Jupiter, whom we must by no means forget. Every thing is replete with Jupiter. He fills the Streets, the publick Places, and Assemblies of Men. The whole Sea and its Harbours are full of this God, and all of us in all Places have need of Jupiter. ‘Twas certainly not to prove the Being, or to enhance the Merit of Jupiter, or to procure Authority to the Poet Aratus, that the Apostle quotes this Passage. But he has deliver’d out of Bondage, as we may say, a Truth which this Poet had utter’d, without penetrating into the true Meaning of it. He has made use of it to prove the Existence of the true God, to People that were not convinced of the divine Authority of the Scriptures, and would have rejected such Proofs as the Apostle might have derived from thence.

POINTS, or Vowels. Though the Hebrews in their Alphabet have both Vowels² and Consonants, like other Nations, yet it is true, however, that in writing they

do not always place their Vowels with the Consonants. Sometimes the Vowels that are inserted are not pronounced; or lastly, these Vowels having sometimes one Sound and sometimes another, being sometimes long and sometimes short; it is very difficult to those that have not been long acquainted with the Hebrew Tongue, to read rightly the Books written in Hebrew. ‘Twas Five long.

If we have Recourse to the Rabbins, and to some Hebrew Grammarians among the Christians, concerning the Antiquity of these Points, we must believe them as antient as the Hebrew Scriptures themselves, and must derive their Original from Moses, or from Esdras, or from the Antients of the great Synagogue, who lived in the Time of Esdras and of Nehemiah. a But the most Judicious believe this Invention to be much more modern. Some³ refer their Original to the Massorites, or to the Doctors of the School of Tiberias, who lived about the 500th Year of Jesus Christ. F. Morinus thinks, that it was from the Arabians that the Hebrews received both the Art of Grammar, and also the Use of these Points. But the Arabians themselves did not begin to write but very late; for when the Empire of the Mahometans was settled, about the Year 622, they had not had the Use of Letters very long. The Names of these pointed Vowels, which are entirely Arabick, are a Proof that they were originally dirived from these People. Besides, the first Grammarians that the Jews had, being Arabians, and having writ in their own Language, it is very probable, that the pointed Vowels are of their Invention, and proceed from the same Source from whence their Art of Grammar is derived.

F. Morin, who has examin’d this whole Matter to the Bottom, as to what concerns the Antiquity of the pointed Vowels, shews that they were not yet invented in the Time of Origen, nor in the Time of St. Jerome, nor even in the Time of the Doctors that composed the Talmud, which was not finish’d but in the Seventh Century. this Difficulty that gave Occasion to the Invention and Use of the pointed Vowels, which are certain Points placed below or above the Consonants, which supply the Place of Vowels, when they are wanting, or which determine their Sound, Quantity, and Value, when they are present.

The Grammarians reckon fourteen pointed Vowels, viz.

Five short.

Four very short.

The same Author running over the several Works that were composed by the Jews in the eighth and ninth Ages; the first Footsteps that he meets with of the pointed Vowels are in the Writings of the Rabbins Ben-aser, Head of the School of the Western Jews, and in those of Ben-nephtali, Head of the School of the Eastern Jews, who lived about the Year 940, or about the Middle of the tenth Century. It follows then, that we cannot well place the Introduction of the Points before the Middle of the tenth Century. See Morin. Exercit. Biblic. l. 2. Exer. 28. c. 1, 2, 3, &c. Walton’s Proleg. 3. n. 38, &c. and the other Writers who have composed Prolegomena to the Scriptures; as M. Du Pin, F. Frassen, and F. Thomassin, in his Method of studying the Scripture.

The modern Jews admit indeed of the pointed Vowels, and of Bibles printed with these Points, for ordinary Use; but the Books they publickly make use of in their Synagogues, the authentick Rolls from which they solemnly read the sacred Text, are still without Points. As at the Beginning the Samaritans also did not put any Points in their Pentateuch, which was written in the antient Hebrew Characters. The Scrupulosity of each of these in this respect, is a Proof of the Novelty of the pointed Vowels.

It had been thought, that Esdras had inserted the pointed Vowels in the Hebrew, ‘till the Time of Elias Levita, a German Jew, who about the Middle of the sixteenth Century wrote against this Opinion, and maintain’d, that the pointed Vowels were not receiv’d ‘till after the Compleating of the Thalmud, about the Year of⁴

Christ 500; that ‘till that Time the Manner of reading the sacred Text, and of supplying the Vowels therein, was only preserved by Tradition. All the Jews in general, as well those who referr’d the Points to Esdras, as those who ascrib’d them to the Massorites, maintain, that the manner of reading, according to this Punctuation, is of divine Authority, and that it may not be allow’d to make the least Alteration therein. But the greatest part of our Criticks, even of those that hold Esdras for the first Author of the Points, maintain it to be a mere human Invention, and that no Scruple should be made of mending it, when the Tenour of the Discourse, the Analogy of Things, or the Rules of good Criticism can offer a better Sense.

These are the chief Reasons urged by the two Buxtorfs, Father and Son,⁵ to prove the Antiquity of the pointed Vowels. First, two antient Books call’d Bahir and Zohar, the first of which was written a little before the Birth of Jesus Christ, and the second a little after, which expressly mention the pointed Vowels in more Places than one. Secondly, the Massorites of Tiberias, to whom the Invention of the Points is ascribed, do not appear to have had sufficient Capacity for this Work, nor does any antient Author impute it to them. Abenezra, a Rabbin of the twelfth Age, is the first who does them this Honour. Thirdly, that since the Hebrew has ceas’d to be the vulgar Tongue of the Jews, that is, since the Captivity of Babylon, it was not possible to teach this Language without the Assistance of the pointed Vowels; therefore at least they must have been in being since Esdras, and have always been in use from that Time. Fourthly, by subverting the Authority of the pointed Vowels, and putting them upon the Footing of an Invention merely human, the Text will be given up to uncertain Reading and arbitrary Explications, which will overturn the Certainty and Authority of the Holy Scriptures.

But to these Reasons we may thus reply: First, that the Books Bahir and Zohar have nothing near that Antiquity that has been imputed to them. There are even found Things in these Books, that must have been written above a thousand Years since that Time, at which they are pretended to be written. No antient Author has either own’d them or quoted them. Secondly, the Massorites of Tiberias were certainly in being a long Time in Judea; and abstracting from the Notion that has been received of their Capacity, and from the Testimony of Aben-ezra and of Elias Levita, it is known with great Certainty, that the pointed Vowels were not found out before their Time.

Thirdly, that since the Hebrew Tongue has ceas’d to be a living Language, and spoke by the Jews, the Necessity of the pointed Vowels is not so great as is pretended. The Samaritans, who understand Hebrew no better than the Jews, have no Points to this Day; yet they read the Hebrew Text in Samaritan Characters. The Arabians had Points but late. One might very well be without them in their Language, as also in the Hebrew, the Syriack, and the Chaldee, even on Supposition that these were not living Languages, provided we preserve the antient Character, provided we speak a Language that has some Affinity to those whose Character we preserve, and lastly, that this Language, dead as it is, may however subsist in the Ecclesiastical Offices, in the Prayers, and even in an infinite Number of Terms written in the Language of Commerce and Conversation. Upon this Supposition, which is really the Case in which the Jews are at present, in respect of the Hebrew, the Difficulty of reading the Hebrew without Points is vastly less than one would imagine. We certainly know that many Jews, who are far from knowing this Language to Perfection, yet, however, can read Hebrew without Points, and even write it too. This is enough to prove, whatever may be said to the contrary, that they might have done well enough without Points, for several Ages, and that we might still do well enough without them. Add to this, that the Hebrew Tongue is not absolutely destitute of Vowels; it has three or four, viz. Aleph, Jod, Vau, and Hain; He and Cheth are Aspirations. These Letters and these Aspirations are every where to be found in the Text. One Vowel alone is sufficient for the reading a whole Word. To judge of the Force of these Reasons, it is necessary to understand the Language.

The fourth Proof relating to the Authority of these pointed Vowels has but an indirect Glance to their Antiquity; and it is easy to retort the Argument against those that use it, by applying it to the Greek and Latin Tongues, which have always had Vowels. Without meddling with the Vowels, cannot one often take the same Passage in ten different Senses, and that without changing any thing in the Words, or Accents, or Punctuation, only by altering the Order and Structure of the Words? Can this be said to give up the sacred Text to an uncertain Reading, and to arbitrary Explications? Is there any Language in the World, in which one does not often happen upon equivocal Expressions, Am

Gen. iv. 19.phibologies, and Uncertainties, and that notwithstanding Points, Accents, and Vowels? I own that the Hebrew without Points is more subject to this than any other Language; but Tradition, good Sense, the Coherence of the Discourse, Custom, supply Rules to correct these pretended Inconveniencies. And what would be the Event, if we were always obliged servilely to follow the Punctuation of the Massorites? How many Passages have been happily restored, or explain’d, by having Recourse to antient Versions, and by quitting the Manner of Reading assign’d by the Massorites?

POLYGAMY. Polygamy was tolerated among the Hebrews, and authorized by the Example of the Patriarchs. We do not see it established by any Law, and the Scripture, which transmits to us the Name of the first bigamous Person, and of his two Wives, seems to insinuate, that his Action was not approved of by good People, and that he was afraid of the Consequences. For he says thus to his two Wives, Adah and Zillah: Hear my Voice, ye Wives of Lamech, hearken unto my Speech. For I have slain a Man to my wounding, and a young Man to my hurt. If Cain shall be avenged seven-fold, truly Lamech seventy and seven-fold. As if he would thus comfort his Wives, who were terrify’d with the Irregularity of his Polygamy: This is not a Crime that deserves Death; I have not kill’d a Man. Whoever shall dare to lay his Hand on me, will be severely punish’d for it. Compare my Action to that of Cain, and then conclude, that if the Murderer of Cain shall deserve Punishment, how much more shall he deserve it that shall murder Lamech?

The Rabbins maintain, that Polygamy was in use from the very Beginning of the World, and that before the Deluge every Man had two Wives. Tertullian on the contrary thinks,⁶ that Lamech was the first who transgressed the establish’d Order of God, by marrying two Wives, and that Polygamy commenced from a Man that was accursed. Numerus matrimonii à maledicto viro cæpit. He says, that the bad Example of this Man had Consequences, which continued down to the total Subversion of the Jewish Nation, and that before the Deluge nobody imitated Lamech. St. Jerome says,⁷ that Lamech, who was an Homicide and a bloody-minded Person, was the first who divided one Flesh to two Wives, and that the Flood expiated his Parricide and his Polygamy together. (He supposes Lamech to have kill’d Cain.) Pope Nicholas I.⁸ accuses Lamech of Adultery, because of his Polygamy; and Pope Innocent III. maintains,⁹ that it was never allow’d to have a Plurality of Wives at once, without a Permission and particular Revelation from God.

‘Tis upon this Supposition that they justify the Polygamy of the Patriarchs. ‘Tis believed that God permitted it to them, or at least that he tolerated it for superior Views. The Laws of Moses plainly suppose this Custom, and yet condemn it not. The Rabbins allow the King to have as far as 18 Wives, after the Example of Rehoboam King of Judah, who had to that Number. They allow the Israelites to marry as many as they can maintain. But for all this, Examples of Polygamy among private Persons were not common. The wiser Men among them easily saw the Inconveniencies that attended this Irregularity. But instead of Wives they took Concubines, which Practice was not liable to the same Disorders. There is this Difference between a Wife and a Concubine, according to the Rabbins; that a Wife was marry’d by Contract, and had her Dowry, whereas the Concubines were taken without Contract, and lived in a State of Submission and Dependance, under the Matron of the Family, as Hagar in respect of Sarah; and that the Children of the Concubines had no Share in the Inheritance.

The Saviour of the World reduced Marriage to its primitive and lawful Condition, by revoking that Permission that tolerated Polygamy and Divorce. He allows Christians to have but one Wife, according to those Words of the Creator: In the Beginning God created them Male and Female, wherefore a Man shall cleave unto his Wife, and they two shall be but one Flesh.

Polygamy is no longer allow’d the Jews at present, neither in the East nor in the West. The Emperors Theodosius, Arcadius, and Honorius forbid it them by their Decrees. Anno 393.The Mahometans, who allow themselves this Liberty, will not, however, allow it to the Jews in their Dominions. The Samaritans, who are extremely devoted to the Laws of Moses, marry but one Wife, and make it a Crime in the Jews, that they secretly practise Polygamy in the East. There was a Book printed at London, call’d Polygamia triumphatrix, the Author of which was one Lyserus, a Native of Saxony, who conceal’d himself under the Name of Theophilus Aletheus. This Work has been confuted by several learned Men.

Polygamy is divided into simultaneous and successive. The first is, when a Man has more than one Wife at a Time. It is

condemned by both Canon and Civil Law. Successive Polygamy is, when a Man has several Wives one after another, each of which he marries after the Decease of the preceding Wife. It is allow’d in the Church, though with a good deal of Regret, the Fathers and Councils having often testify’d, that they did not approve of second Marriages. And the Canons do not admit into Holy Orders such as are under this Incapacity, unless they obtain an express Dispensation for it. a

POLYGLOTT. This Word literally signifies a variety of Languages, and this Name is given to the Bibles publish’d in several Languages, or at least in three, of which the Texts are ranged in different Columns. Some of these Polyglotts contain all the Books of the Bible, others contain but a Part. These following are the principal Polyglotts that have yet appeared.

1. The Bible of Francis Ximenes of Cisneros, Cardinal of the Order of St. Francis; it was printed in 1517, in four Languages, in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin.

2. The Bible of Justiniani Bishop of Nebio, and of the Order of St. Dominick; it appear’d in 1518, in five Languages; in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, and Arabick. Only the Psalter was printed, the rest remaining in Manuscript.

3. John Potken, Provost of the Collegiate Church of St. George at Cologn, caus’d the Psalter to be printed in 1546, in four Languages, Hebrew, Greek, Chaldee, or rather Ethiopic, and Latin.

4. The Jews of Constantinople caus’d to be printed in 1546, in the same City, the Pentateuch in Hebrew, Chaldee, Persian, and Arabick, with the Commentaries of Solomon Jarchi.

5. The same Jews caus’d also to be printed in 1547, at Constantinople, the Pentateuch, in four Languages, in Hebrew, Chaldee, the vulgar Greek, and in Spanish.

6. John Draconitis of Carlostad in Franconia, in 1565, made an Edition of the Psalter, the Proverbs of Solomon, and the Prophets Micah and Joel in five Languages, in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, and German. The Death of the Author prevented the Compleating of the Impression of this Work.

7. Benedictus Arias Montanus had the chief Care of the Edition of the Polyglott Bible perform’d by Christopher Plantin, by the Order of Philip II. King of Spain. This Bible is in eight Volumes, and was finish’d in 1572. ‘Tis in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin, with the Syriac Version of the New Testament. ‘Tis properly but a Copy of that of Cardinal Ximenes.

8. There appear’d at Heidelberg in 1586, an Edition of the Books of the Old Testament in Hebrew and Greek, with two Latin Versions; one of St. Jerome, and the other of Santes Pagninus, ranged in four Columns, at the Bottom of which were Notes ascribed to Vatablus. This was the Reason that it obtain’d the Name of the Polyglott Bible of Vatablus.

9. David Wolder, a Lutheran Minister, in 1596, at Hambourg, caus’d to be printed by James Lucias, a Bible in three Languages, Greek, Latin, and German.

10. Elias Hutter, a German, printed several Polyglotts. The first is a Bible in six Languages, printed at Nuremberg in 1599. There was only printed the Pentateuch, the Books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth. There was the Hebrew, the Chaldee, the Greek, the Latin, and the German of Luther; and as to the sixth Language, the Copies varied according to the Nations they were designed for. Some had the Sclavonian Version of the Edition of Wittemberg; others the French of Geneva; others the Italian also of Geneva; and others the Saxon Version from the German of Luther.

This Author also gave the Psalter and the New Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German. But his chief Work is the New Testament in twelve Languages, Syriack, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Spanish, French, Latin, German, Bohemian, English, Danish, and Polish. This Polyglott was printed at Nuremberg in 1599, in two Volumes in Folio, and in four Volumes in Quarto.

11. The Bible of M. le Jay in seven Languages, was printed at Paris by Anthony Vitre in 1645. It contains the Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee, Greek, Syriack, Latin and Arabick. He has follow’d the Greek Version printed at Antwerp, as also the Chaldee and Latin. Nothing can be more magnificent than this Impression, as to the Paper and Character; but Complaint has been made of the many Faults that are to be found in it.

12. No sooner did the Polyglott of M. le Jay appear in England, but the Learned Men of this Nation undertook to give a new Edition of it more correct, more extensive, and more perfect. They accomplished this Design in 1657, and produced a new Polyglott in five Volumes, with Prolegomena, and several other Treatises in the first Tome, several new Oriental Versions in the Fourth and Fifth, and a very large Collection of various Readings in the Sixth. Brian Walton was the Undertaker of this Edition, which he finish’d in 1657. Hence it is that this Bible has the Name of Walton’s Polyglott. Those

that are curious to know the History of these Polyglotts more at large, may consult F. le Long of the Oratory, in his Work call’d, An Historical Discourse of the principal Editions of the Polyglott Bibles, printed at Paris by Pralard in 1713.

POLYMITA. These were Works of several Threads and several Colours. ‘Tis said in Genesis,¹⁰ that Jacob made his Son Joseph a Coat of divers Colours, tunicam polymitam. The Hebrew has it a Coat of Passim. And the same Text makes use of a 2 Sam. xiii. 18.like Expression, to denote the particular kind of the Robe of Thamar the Daughter of David. ‘Tis thought that Passim signifies different Colours, variegated Stripes, tunicam fasciatam, such as the eastern People still wear. St. Jerome puts sometimes into the Latin Text of the Scripture,¹¹ opere polymito instead of opere polymitario. The Hebrew Letter is opere cogitantis, a Ezekiel xxviii. 24. Polymitaria.Work of Tapestry. Ezekiel makes use of the Term Polymito; or rather St. Jerome in his Translation of Ezekiel, has used this Word to express the Hebrew Meshi, which the Rabbins and several Interpreters explain by Silk. In another Place of the same Ezek. xvi. 10, 13. MeshiProphet, St. Jerome has translated Rakamah, which signifies Works of Embroidery, by Polimitarius.

POLYMITARIUS, or Polimitarius. This Term is found in several Places of the Vulgat, as Exodus xxxv. 35. xxxvi. 35. xxxviii. 23. xxxix. 3. It answers to the Hebrew Word Chosheb,¹² which properly signifies a Workman that contrives and labours with his Mind and Imagination. It appears by examining the Passages where it is found, that it signifies a Workman in Tapestry, one that makes Veils of several Colours, and Webs of different Threads. This is the true Signification of Polymitarius, which is derived from the Greek, and which literally signifies one that works in several Colours, as Weavers of Tapestry, and Turkey Carpets. These Works are also call’d Phrygia, Phrygionica, Babylonica, Alexandrina, and even Plumaria, because of the Resemblance of the Arts of Embroidery and Tapestry.

It appears from Moses, that the Makers of Tapestry Polymitarii, who worked for the Tabernacle in the Wilderness, made use not only of Wool of the Colour of Purple, Hyacinth, Azure, and Crimson, but also of gold Thread. Incidit bracteas aureas, & Ex. xxxix. 3, 9.extendit in fila, ut possent torqueri cum priorum colorum subtegmine. We cannot know exactly how they drew their Gold into Threads; but there is no Room to doubt, but that Gold Thread was made use of, in the Embroidery of the High-Priest’s Pectoral.

POMGRANATE. The Pomgranate is a kind of Apple, cover’d without with a reddish Rind, and Red within, which opens Length-ways, and shews red Grains within, full of Juice like Wine, with little Kernels. God gave Orders to Moses, to put Ex. xxviii. 33.embroider’d Pomgranates, with golden Bells between, at the Bottom of the High Priest’s blue Robe or Ephod. Pomgranates being very common in Palestine, and being a very beautiful Fruit, the Scriptures often make use of Similitudes taken from the Pomgranate.

The Pomgranate Tree, malus punica, or malo-granatum, is the Tree or Shrub that bears the Pomgranates. There are of two Sorts, wild and domestick. The cultivated Pomgranate Tree has several small angular Boughs, armed with Prickles, and cover’d with a reddish Bark. Its Leaves are small, like to those of Myrrh, but not so sharp, of a green Colour, drawing towards Red. Its Blossom is large, beautiful, of a red Colour inclining to Purple, compos’d of several Stalks in the Form of a Rose, in the Hollow of the Cup. This Cup is oblong, hard, Purple, having a Figure something like that of a Bell. This Garden Pomgranate Tree sometimes bears double Flowers, and then it has no Fruit.

The Wild Pomgranate Tree is a Shrub like the former, but it is more rude and thorny. Its Blossoms are called Balausts by the Apothecaries. They are Astringent, and very good in a Dysentery, Diarrhœa, and Lientery.

We are assured, that in Perou there have been seen Granates as large as a Barrel; that the Spaniards, by way of Curiosity, carry them in the Procession of the Sacrament. The Mussulmen speaking of the Holy Land, say, That five Men could hardly carry a Grape of this Country, and that five Persons might hide themselves in one Shell of their Pomgranates. This is carrying the Hyperbole as far as it will go.

POMPEY. Cneius Pompeius, surnamed the Great, one of the most celebrated Captains that the Roman Commonwealth ever had. His Name indeed is not to be found in the Scriptures, but Josephus speaks of him often, nor can we be dispensed with from saying, in a Word, how he behaved towards the Nation of the Jews. Having finished the War against Tigranes, in the Year of the World 3938, and that against several other People in 3939, he sent Scaurus¹³ into Judea, who arriving at Damascus, and being informed of the Troubles of Judea occasion’d by the two Brothers Hircanus and Aristobulus;

he came thither in great Haste, thinking to make great Advantage of their Division. No sooner had he enter’d into this Province, but he received Ambassadors from both, each of them desiring his Friendship and Protection. But Aristobulus having presented him with Three hundred Talents, he declared for him, and sent Word to Hyrcanus and Aretas, who kept Aristobulus besieged in Jerusalem, that if they did not desist from this Undertaking, he should use them as Enemies to the Romans. So that Aristobulus was thus deliver’d from the Danger that threatned him.

Some time after Pompey himself came to Damascus; Hyrcanus and Antipater came to wait on him, and complain’d of the Proceedings of Scaurus, who had suffer’d himself to be corrupted by Aristobulus’s Money; and they intreated him to fix Hyrcanus upon the Throne of Judea, which belonged to him by Birth. The Beginning of the next Year,¹⁴ Pompey having again heard the mutual Complaints of Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, and also of the Jews, who complained against them both, he sent them back in Peace, saying, he would soon come into Judea, and then he would decide their Controversy. But Aristobulus withdrawing himself, instead of staying for Pompey’s Determination, he fortify’d himself, and put himself into a Posture of opposing him, if he should pretend to dethrone him.

After Pompey had finished his War against Mithridates, he marched into Judea,¹⁵ where Hyrcanus and Aristobulus came before him, and pleaded their Cause, each maintaining their several Pretensions in his Presence. Afterwards Pompey having order’d Aristobulus to surrender his Fortresses into his Hands; he obey’d, though not without Difficulty, and at the same time withdrew to Jerusalem, to prepare for the Event. Pompey would not give him time to fortify himself, but follow’d him close; and when he came near the City, Aristobulus fearing to engage himself in a War against the Romans, came out to meet him, promised him to put the City into his Hands, with a great Sum of Money, and beseeched him not to come to an open Breach with him. Pompey forgave him what was pass’d, and sent Gabinius to receive the Money, and to take Possession of the City. But Aristobulus’s Soldiers shut the Gates against him, so that he was forc’d to return without performing his Commission.

This Procedure provoked Pompey, who thereupon secured Aristobulus, and kept him in Bonds; and then marched against Jerusalem. He first made Proposals of Peace to the Besieged, but finding they rejected them, he began to form the Siege of the City. He encamped on the North Side of the Temple, which was the weakest Part of the City. The Roman Soldiery being used to Labour and Fatigues, soon raised Terrasses whereon to place their Machines, and to batter the Walls. But the Jews defended themselves with so much Courage, and made so many Sallies against the Besiegers, that if the Sabbath-day had not interrupted their Opposition, the Romans could never have compleated their Approaches. The Romans therefore perceiving that on this Day they made no Attacks, but contented themselves to be upon the Defensive, they made no Attack against them, but only carry’d on their Works.

When they were finish’d, they began to batter the Towers and Walls of the Temple with Machines they had brought with them from Tyre. One thing gave great Cause of Admiration to Pompey, that during the whole Siege, as if they had been in a profound Peace, the Jews did not forbear to offer Morning and Evening their accustom’d Sacrifices to God, not suffering any Prospect of Danger to interrupt them. The third Month of the Siege the Breach being found practicable, the Romans in great Numbers pour’d into the Temple, where they made a dreadful Slaughter of the Priests, and of all such as had taken Refuge there. Cornelius Faustus, the Son of Sylla, was the first that enter’d the Breach. This was the first Year of the Hundred and seventy-ninth Olympiad, a Day of Fasting among the Jews, in Memory of the Volume of Jeremiah, which was burnt by King Jehoiakim, the Twenty-eighth Day of this third Month of the Civil Year, which is called Casleu, and which answers partly to our Month of November, and partly to December, in the Year of the World 3941, before Christ 59, and before the vulgar Era 63.

Pompey being enter’d into the Temple, there saw such Things as were not allow’d to be seen, but only by the Priests alone. In the inward Part of the Temple he found the Golden Table, the Candlestick, with the Vessels and Censers, and a great Quantity of Incense. And besides this there was about Two thousand Talents of Silver in the Treasuries of the Temple. But he meddled with nothing of all this, and when he had given Orders to have the Temple clear’d of the dead Bodies that were there in great Number, the Day following he caus’d Sacrifices to be offer’d to God. After this he restor’d Hyrcanus to the High Priesthood, and to the Govern

ment of his Nation; but he forbad him to wear the Diadem. or to assume the Title of King. As to Aristobulus, he kept him in Bonds, and carry’d him to Rome with two of his Daughters, and all the Sons he had. Concerning the War, the Reader may consult Josephus Antiq. l. 14. c. 8. and Usher on the Year of the World 3941, where he relates not only what he finds in Josephus concerning this War, but also what prophane Authors have said about it. The rest of the Life of Pompey has no Relation to our Design. When this great Man was conquer’d by Julius Cæsar at Pharsalia, he came into Egypt, where he was basely put to death by the Officers of the young Ptolemy, the last King of Egypt, in the Year of the World 3956, before Christ 44, before the vulgar Era 48.

PONTIUS PILATE. See PILATE.

PONTUS. The Province of Pontus in Asia minor, having the Euxine Sea to the North, Cappadocia to the South, Paphlagonia and Galatia to the East, and the Lesser Armenia to the West. ‘Tis thought St. Peter preached in Pontus, because he addresses his first Epistle to the Faithful of this Province, and to those of the neighbouring Provinces. St. Jerome in Genesis, puts Arioch King of Pontus with Chedorlaomer and his Confederates, who came to make War with the Inhabitants of Pentapolis. a But the Hebrew has King of Ellazar; Jonathan, King of Thalassar; the Syriack, King of מלך אלסר Melech Ellasar. Isa. xxxvii. 12.Dalassar. Isaiah insinuates to us, that this Country of Thalassar was either in the Country of Eden, or very near it, since he speaks of the Children of Eden, that were at Thalassar, and testifies that this Province was conquer’d by the Kings of Assyria, with the other Provinces about the Tigris. The Septuagint and Onkelos have kept to the original Word Ellasar; St. Jerome has follow’d Symmachus in translating it King of Pontus. Grotius thinks he was King of the Elizarians, a People of Arabia mentioned by Ptolemy. But it is much more credible he was a King beyond the Euphrates, as well as the other Kings confederated with Chedorlaomer.

PONTIF. See PRIEST.

POOR. This Word is often taken for a Man that is humble, afflicted, and mean in his own Eyes, and in the Eyes of God. Humilem & pauperem justificate, & factus est Dominus refugium pauperi, & oculi ejus in pauperem respiciunt, &c. In these Passages and others of the like Importance, the Word Poor is not taken for a Man that is destitute of the good Things of the Earth, but for a Man that is sensible of his Misery and Indigence, and applies for Succour to the Mercy of God. In this Sense the greatest and richest Men of the World are the poorest in the Eyes of God.

In Exodus, chap. xxiii. 3. Moses forbids the Judges To countenance a poor Man in Levit. xix. 15.his Cause: Or, as he says elsewhere, Thou shalt not respect the Person of the Poor, nor honour the Person of the Mighty; but in Righteousness shalt thou judge thy Neighbour. In a Word, judge without respect of Persons, have only Truth and Justice before your Eyes, consider that you stand in the Place of God upon the Earth.

Psal. lxxii. 2, 4. Isai. xi. 4. Matt. xi. 5.One of the Characters of the Messiah was to judge the Poor, and to preach the Gospel to them. Jesus Christ chose to himself Disciples that were poor, and the greatest Part of the first Believers were really poor Men, as we may see by St. Paul, and others in Ecclesiastical History.

Prov. xxii. 2. Prov. xxix. 13.Solomon says, The Rich and Poor meet together; that they are like each other in one thing, that is, that God created them both, and that both Riches and Poverty are of his bestowing. He says elsewhere, The Poor and Deceitful Man meet together, or the Debtor and Creditor. That is to say, that they belong to God, and that each are in the Hands of his Providence. That the Rich should not be exalted, nor the Poor be discouraged; they are both equal in the Eyes of God.

Jerem. ii. 34.Jeremiah says, speaking to Jerusalem, In thy Skirts is found the Blood of the Souls of the poor Innocents. In alis tuis inventus est sanguis animarum pauperum & innocentum. The Word Ala in this Passage is taken for the Skirts of a Garment. Sanguis animarum, is as much as to say, the Blood of a Person put to death.

Amos iii. 6. viii. 6.Amos reproaches the Israelites with having sold the Poor for a contemptible Price, and for Shoes and Sandals. Probably he aims at the Rich, who thus sold their poor Debtors for Things of no Value.

James ii. 1.St. James seems to carry the Obligation, of not respecting Persons, so far as to give no Mark of Distinction to Persons in Power, or raised to Dignity, in the publick Assemblies of Religion. These are his Words; My Brethren, have not the Faith of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Lord of Glory, with respect of Persons. For if there come unto your Assembly, a Man with a Gold Ring, in goodly Apparel, and there come in also a poor Man in vile Rayment; and ye have Respect to him that weareth the gay Cloathing, and say unto him, Sit thou here in a good Place, and say to the Poor, Stand thou there, or sit here under my Footstool: Are ye not then partial in your selves, and are become Judges of evil Thoughts? But all this ought to be understood rather of an inward Preference, and of the Sentiments of the Heart, than of external¹⁶

Marks of Respect. It is never allow’d a Christian to prefer a rich Man before a poor one, only because he is rich, and to think better of him, to judge him more worthy of Esteem and Consideration, rather than he that has not the same Advantages of the Goods of Fortune.

Job xxxvi. 8.In Scripture, the Poor in general are often put for the meaner People, and for such Inhabitants of the Country as are in the lowest Condition of Life, without considering whether they have Accommodations suitable to their State.

Poverty, in the Old Testament, was consider’d by the carnal Jews as a great Evil, and a Punishment from God. Job speaks of it as of a Prison, and a State of Bondage. Si fuerint in catenis & in vinculis paupertatis. And Isaiah speaks of it as of a Furnace or Isai. xlviii. 10.Crucible, wherein Metals are purified. Ecce excoxi te, sed non quasi argentum; elegi te in camino paupertatis. God try’d Job and Tobit by Poverty; they belong’d to the New Covenant; they knew the Value of Suffering, of Humiliation, of Indigence. They knew how to make a right use of them, and to apply them to their own Advantage. They were already poor in Spirit, in the Disposition of their Hearts, before God made them to feel the Effects of an actual Poverty. See POVERTY.

PORCH. See TEMPLE.

PORPHYRIO.¹⁷ A sort of Water-fowl, which has the Name Porphyrio given to it, because of its red Beak. It has the Ground of its Plumage of a blue Colour; the Half of its Tail, towards its Extremity, is of a whitish Ash-colour, its Eyes are black, its Beak and Legs are of a purple Colour, and very splendid. It has four Claws, disposed like those of a Pye. This is a rare Bird; there are seen of them about Narbon a City of Spain, where they call it by the Name of Calamon. Pliny says, that it comes from the Islands Balearides, that it is very beautiful, and that it is as big as a Cock. ‘Tis observ’d to drink Water as if it bit it, and that it dips its Food in Water, and conveys it to its Beak with its Foot. Elian affirms, That the Greeks and Romans never used to eat this Bird at their Feasts.

This Bird haunts the Rivers. Pliny says, That at Comagene they are found in great Plenty. From its Fore-head, or the upper Part of the Beak, to the Top of the Head, it has a yellow Spot resembling that of a Coot, but of a different Colour. The part of the Head below this Spot, and the Forepart of the Neck, are of a greenish Colour. It has hardly any Tail. Elian says, That in the House where it is kept, if it perceives the Woman to commit Adultery, it discovers it to the Husband

Πορφυρεῖον. by certain Motions that it makes. But these are Fables. Moses prohibits the Use of it to the Jews, perhaps because of its Voracity. The Continence and the Modesty of this Bird is pass’d into a Proverb, Porphyrione castior. ‘Tis thought to be a sort of Hern. The Jews believe it to be the Wood-pecker. Targum. Vultur.The Samaritan Translator is for the Pelican. Bochart will have it the Vulture. The Hebrew Word Rachamah signifies Mercy; and the Care and Tenderness of the Vulture for its Young is well known. The Egyptians took the Vulture for the Symbol of Pity.

PORTERS of the Temple. The Levites discharged the Office of Porters of the Temple both Day and Night, and had the Care of the Treasures and Offerings. This Office of Porter was in some sort Military; they were as it were Soldiers of the Guard to the Lord. See LEVITE.

PORTIUS FESTUS. See FESTUS.

POSSESSION of the Devil. Possession and Obsession differ in this, that in Obsession the Devil acts outwardly, whereas in Possession he acts within the Patient. See OBSESSION before. Examples of Possession are common, especially in the New Testament. Jesus Christ and his Apostles have cured great Numbers of such as were possess’d; and Ecclesiastical Historians still furnish us with many other Instances. But as it has been found by many Examples, that often the Credulity of the Simple has been imposed on, by fictitious Obsessions and Possessions; some pretended Free-thinkers have maintained, that all these Obsessions were nothing else but Diseases of the Mind, and the Effects of a distemper’d Imagination: That Persons sometimes thought themselves to be possess’d in good earnest; that others feign’d themselves to be so, in order to carry on some Designs; in a Word, that there never were any real Possessions or Obsessions. The most plausible Arguments that they bring for this Opinion are such as follow:

The Devil cannot naturally act upon our Bodies. He is of a spiritual Nature, and by his Will only cannot move our Limbs, nor act upon our Fluids, nor Organs, without an express Allowance from God. If he had naturally this Power, the World would be full of People that were possess’d or obsess’d; he would be always exerting his Hatred against Man, and would exercise his Power and Authority to the utmost that his Pride and Malice could suggest. How many Men should we see every Day possess’d, agitated, tormented, choak’d, strangled, thrown from Precipices, drowned, burnt, if the Devil had this Power we impute to him? If it be said that God moderates this Power, that he restrains the Devil, and does not allow him

to exercise his Malice against Sinners and wicked Men; do not we see on the contrary, that he often possesses or obsesses very harmless Persons? We know what Sufferings he inflicted upon Job; we see Children possess’d, and other Persons, whose Lives seem to have been exempt from any great Crimes or Disorders.

Why do we not see Men and Women possess’d, but only at certain Times, and in certain Countries? That there are whole Nations, where the Thing is not so much as known? How is it that they are only seen in such Countries where the People are generally Superstitious, and in such Persons as are of a weak Understanding, and of a melancholly Temper? That if we examine those Men and Women, who either are or have been possess’d, we shall find none but what have some of the Qualities and Weaknesses now mentioned.

If we suppose the Devil to suspend the Operations of the Soul of the Party possess’d, and to usurp the Office of the Soul to himself; or even that several Devils agitate and possess the same Demoniack, the Difficulty will be still much greater. What Conception can we have of that Soul, that no longer acts in the Body which it animates, and which surrenders up itself to the Devil, as we may call it? How can all these Evil Spirits combine and concur to govern the same Man? If all this can be done without a Miracle, what Proof can there be of Miracles to incredulous People? May it not be said, that all such Things that we call Miracles, are no other than Operations of the Devil? And if a Miracle be requir’d, that a Man should be possess’d of the Devil, it would make God the Author, or at least a Co-operator with the Devil, in his Obsessions and Possessions of Men.

We have so many Examples of natural Things, which however appear to be Supernatural, that there is Room to imagine, that what are call’d Possessions of the Devil, may be of this Kind. So many People have fancy’d themselves to be turned into Wolves, or Oxen; to be made of Glass or Butter; to become Kings or Princes: No one in this Case has Recourse to the Devil, or to a Miracle, to explain the Phænomenon. They tell us roundly, that it is a Disorder in the Brain, a Disease of the Mind or Imagination caus’d by a Heat of the Bowels, or by the Predominance of black Bile. Nobody has Recourse for a Cure to Exorcisms, or to the Priests. They apply themselves to Physicians, take Medicines, use the Baths; they look out for Methods of curing the Imagination of the Patient, or of giving it another Turn. Would it not be the same with such as are possess’d? Would they not obtain a Cure by natural Remedies, by purging them, cooling them, deceiving them dextrously, and making them imagine that the Devil has forsaken them and fled away? There have been remarkable Experiments of this kind; but if we should relate them, the Favourers of Possessions would still say, that these People were not indeed possess’d, and will not deny but there has been much Delusion in this Matter. But they will still maintain, that among the great Number of Demoniacks, it cannot be deny’d, but there must have been some that were really possess’d. The others maintain, that there never were any such, and that whatever has happen’d to those that were reputed to be possess’d, might conveniently be explain’d by natural Means, without having any Recourse to the Devil. This is the whole Knot of this Dispute.

The Defenders of Possessions of the Devil observe, that if this were only an Illusion, Jesus Christ and his Apostles, and the whole Church, would be in an Error, and must wilfully involve us in one too, by speaking, acting, and praying, as if there were real Possessions. Our Saviour speaks to, and commands the Devils, who actuated the Possess’d; which Devils answer’d and obey’d, and gave Proofs of their Presence by tormenting those miserable Creatures, which they were obliged to quit. They put them into violent Convulsions, throw them upon the Ground, leave them for dead, take Possession of Hogs, and hurry those Animals into the Sea. Can this be called Delusion? The Prayers and Exorcisms of the Church [of Rome,] what are they but Pageantry and Grimace, if Possessions be nothing else but whimsical and imaginary Distempers? Jesus Christ alledges it as a Proof of his Mission, that the Luke vii. 20, 21. Mark xvi. 17.Devils are cast out; he promises his Apostles the same Power that he exercised himself against those wicked Spirits. Can all this be nothing but Chimera?

‘Tis allow’d, that there are several Tokens of Possession which are equivocal and fallible, but there are others also which are indubitable. A Person may counterfeit a Demoniack, and imitate the Actions, Words, Motions, Contortions, Cries, Howlings, and Convulsions of one that is possess’d. Some Efforts, that seem to be supernatural, may be the Effect of an heated Imagination, melancholy Blood, or Trick and Contrivance. But if a Person all on a sudden should speak and understand Languages that he has never learn’d, talk of sublime Matters he has never study’d, discover Things that are secret and unknown. Should he lift up himself into the Air without visible Assistance, act and speak in a Manner very distant from his natural Temper and Condition: If all this should happen without any Inducement from Interest, Passion, or any other natural Motive: If

all these Circumstances, I say, or the greatest part of them, should concur in the same Possession, can there be any Room to suspect that it is not a real one?

But there have been many Possessions, in which all these Circumstances have concurr’d together. There have therefore been real ones, but especially those which the Gospel declares as such. God was pleased to permit, that in our Saviour’s Time there should be many such in Israel, to furnish him with Occasions of signalizing his Power, and to supply us with more Proofs of his Mission and Divinity.

Joseph. Antiq. l. 7. c. 25.Though we must own, that true Possessions of the Devil are very rare, and very difficult to be distinguish’d, yet it cannot be allow’d that they are miraculous. They do not happen without the Permission of God, but they are neither contrary nor superior to the Laws of Nature. Nobody thinks he has recourse to a Miracle, when he says, that a good Angel inspires him with good Thoughts, or prompts him to avoid any Danger. It is suppos’d in like manner, that the Devil may tempt us to Evil, excite irregular Impressions in our Bodies, or raise Tempests. The Scripture imputes to evil Angels the Death of the First-born of Egypt, and the Destruction of Sennecharib’s Army. It imputes to good Angels the raining of Fire, by which Sodom and Gomorrah were consumed. These Events are miraculous in some of their Circumstances, but not in all. God only suffers the Demons to act; they then only exercise a Power that is natural to them, which was before suspended and restrain’d by the Power of God. Men generally conclude too hastily concerning the Power of a Spirit, which they know so little of.

Tob. vi. 19. viii. 2, 3.Josephus was of Opinion, that Possessions of the Devil, were caused by the Souls of wicked Men, who dreading to repair to the Place of their Punishment, seize upon the Body of some Man, toss it and torment it, and do what they can to destroy it. This Sentiment appears to be peculiar to Josephus; for the generality of Jews did not doubt but that it was the Devils who had Possession of the Demoniacks. The Scripture shews us in Tobit, that the Demon Asmodeus was put to flight by the Fumes of Joseph. Antiq. l. 8. c. 2.the Liver of a Fish. Josephus relates, that Solomon compos’d Exorcisms to drive out the evil Spirits out of the Bodies of those that were possess’d, and that a Jew named Eleazar cured some that were possess’d, in the Presence of Vespasian, by putting a Ring under their Nose, in which was inclosed the Root of an Herb recommended by Solomon. At the same time that the Name of this Prince was pronounced, and the Exorcism that he had taught, the Patient fell upon the Ground, and the Devil ceased to torment him. They believed therefore, that the Devils could act upon Bodies, and that Bodies also made an Impression upon them. Upon this Subject of Possessions and Obsessions of the Devil, the Reader may consult our Dissertation which we have compos’d for that Purpose, and is printed in the new Collection of our Dissertations by themselves, in three Volumes in Quarto, at Paris, 1720.

POSSIDONIUS, or Posidonius; he was one of those that were sent by Nicanor to Judas Maccabeus, to treat of Peace with him, 2 Macc. xiv. 19.

Isai. v. 26. xi. 10. 12. Isai. viii. 3. Isai. xiii. 2. Isa. xxx. 17. Diod. ficul. l. 19. p. 680, seu 666.POSTS. This Name is given to Messengers or regulated Couriers, appointed to carry with Expedition the Dispatches of Princes, or the Letters of private Persons in general. Lewis Horninck has written a very accurate Treatise, concerning the Original of Posts. He makes four Kinds of ‘em, those that go on Horse-back, by Water, in a Chariot or Chaise, or those that travel on Foot. We may also refer to the Article of Posts, the Manner of conveying Intelligence by Beacons, or Signals, which are set up at several Distances on the Tops of Mountains. This latter Method we may observe to have been made use of in Scripture. Isaiah says, That the Lord shall set up a Signal among the Nations, to gather together the scatter’d Children of Israel, and to bring them back into their own Country, from the four Corners of the Earth. Elsewhere he says, That Signals shall be set up to assemble the Troops that were to compose the Army of Darius the Mede. And again, All ye Inhabitants of the World, and Dwellers on the Earth, see ye, when he lifteth up an Ensign on the Mountains, and when he bloweth a Trumpet, hear ye. These Signals were set up on the Tops of very high Trees or Masts. Till ye be left as a Beacon [or Mast] upon the Top of a Mountain, and as an Ensign on an Hill. See Isaiah xxxiii. 23. xlix. 22. lxii. 10. Jerem. iv. 6. i. 2. li. 12, 27. ‘Tis thought that the Use of Posts is derived from the Persians. Diodorus Siculus observes, That the Kings of Persia, that they might have Intelligence of what pass’d through all the Provinces of their vast Dominions, placed Centinels at Eminences, at convenient Distances, where Towers were built. These Centinels gave notice of publick Occurrences from one to another, with a very loud and shrill Voice, by which News was transmitted from one Extremity of the Kingdom to another with great Expedition.

But as this could not be practised except in the Case of general News, which it was expedient that the whole Nation should be Xenoph. Cyropæd. l. 8. c. 232.acquainted with; Cyrus, as Xenophon relates, set up Couriers and Places for Posthorses, building on purpose on all the

high Roads, Places for the Reception of the Couriers, where they were to deliver their Pacquets to the next, and so on. This they did Night and Day, so that no Rain or bad Weather was to stop them; and, in the Judgment of many, they went faster than Cranes could fly. This is what Xenophon Herodot. l. 8. c. 98.says.Herodotus owns, That nothing swifter was known, for a Journey by Land. Xerxes, in his famous Expedition against Greece, planted Posts from the Egean Sea to Shushan, or Susa, to send Notice thither of what might happen to his Army: He placed these Messengers from Station to Station, to convey his Pacquets, at such Distances from each other as an Horse might easily travel.

We see Couriers or Posts plainly described Esth. iii. 13.in the Book of Esther: It is there said, That Abasuerus, otherwise Darius, Son of Hystaspes King of Persia, sent Expresses to all the Nobles of his Kingdom, to give them Orders to put to Death all the Jews in their respective Provinces: Missæ sunt per Cursores Regis ad universas Provincias. And when these first Orders were to be revoked, Dispatches were sent Esth. viii. 10.by the Couriers; Missæ per Veredarios qui per omnes Provincias discurrerent.

The Orientals impute to Darius King of D’Herbel. Bibliot. Orient. p. 287. col. 1.Persia, Cotemporary with Philip King of Macedon, the Invention of Posts through all the Provinces of his Kingdom, that he might easily know every thing that passed Plutarch. lib. de Fortun. Alex.therein. Darius Codomannus, who was conquered by Alexander the Great, was a Courier of the King, before he obtain’d the Regal Power.

The Greeks borrow’d the Use of Posts from the Persians, and, in Imitation of Matth. v. 41.them, called them Angari. Jesus Christ, in his Gospel, alludes to these Angares, or Posts, when he says, If any one compels you to go a Mile with him, do not refuse to go two Miles; Si quis te angariaverit milliarium, vade & duo: Because the Cities were compell’d to provide Horses, or Couriers, for the publick Posts.

Among the Romans, it was Augustus that first set up publick and regular Posts. They were at first young Men, active and nimble, who run from Post to Post, and delivered Pacquets from Hand to Hand. Afterwards they were changed into Post-Chariots and Horses, for the greater Expedition: Sueton. in August.Juvenes primò modicis intervallis, deinde vehicula dispositit. Adrian regulated the Posts with more Regularity than before, and discharg’d the People of the Obligation they were under before, of furnishing Horses and Carriages.

Procopius assures us, that the Emperors appointed Posts upon the great Roads, to be ready at Hand, and that they might be speedily inform’d of whatever pass’d in the Empire: There were not fewer than five Posts a-Day, and sometimes eight: They kept forty Horses at each Post, and as many Post-men and Riders as were necessary. Justinian dismiss’d the Posts at several Places, and particularly those that went from Calcedon to Diacibiza, which is the ancient Lybissa, famous for Hannibal’s Tomb, lying in the Gulph of Nicomedia. The same Author tells us, that Justinian set up Ass-Posts in several Places of the Levant.

The Use of Posts having declined with the Empire, Charlemaign made many Attempts, about the Year 807, to restore them again: But his Undertaking was not prosecuted by his Successors. Lewis XI.¹⁸ is thought to have set up the Common Posts at every two Leagues Distance, throughout the Kingdom of France. Count Taxis first set them up in Germany at his own Expence: And, as a Recompence, the Emperor Matthias, in 1616, gave him, in Fee, the Office of Post-Master General, to himself and his Successors, for ever.¹⁹

As high as the Ninth Century there were Publick Couriers set up in several Places of the Ottoman Empire:²⁰ Some went on Foot, and others on Horse-back, and carry’d Dispatches from the Emperor with wonderful Diligence. There are some also among the Chinese; but they are appointed only to carry Orders from the King, and the Governors of Provinces, and, in a Word, for Publick Affairs, and those of the greatest Consequence.

POTIPHAR, or Putiphar, an Officer of the Court of Pharaoh King of Egypt, and General of his Troops, according to the Version of the Vulgate, or Chief of his Butchers or Cooks, according to the Hebrew²¹. The same Text calls him Eunuch²²: But it is very probable that this Word, in this Place, means only an Officer of the King’s Court. Certain it is, that Potiphar was married, and had Children also, if Asineth Daughter of Potipherah, who was given to Joseph for Wife, were his Daughter, as most of the Interpreters agree, and as it will be mention’d afterwards.

Gen. xxxix. 2, 3, 4, &c.Potiphar then having bought Joseph,²³ who was sold to him as a Slave by the Midianites, who had bought him of his Brethren; he seeing all Things to prosper in his Hands, took an Affection to him, and gave him the Superintendance of his

whole House. But, some Years after, a the Wife of Potiphar, having taken an unlawful Liking to Joseph, and having even solicited him to the Crime of Adultery, Joseph refused her. Then, the Love of this Woman being changed into Rage, she accused him to her Husband, of making Attempts upon her Chastity. Potiphar being too easy to believe this Accusation, put Joseph into Bonds; and having, by Employment, the Charge of the Prisoners, he laid this Care upon Joseph; whether he had found out his Innocence, or whether he thought him fitter for this Office than any other of his Domesticks, as being himself confined in the Prison with the other Prisoners.

But God had replenish’d Joseph with his own Spirit, and had given him an extraordinary Talent of Interpreting Dreams, Gen. chap. xl, xli.which made him known to Pharaoh, upon the Occasion related under the Article of JOSEPH. This Prince made him Ruler of his own House, and of all the Land of Egypt,²⁴ and gave him in Marriage Asineth Daughter of Potipher, or Gen. xli. 45.Potipherah, Priest of Heliopolis, or Priest of the City of On, according to the Hebrew.

Opinions are divided upon the Question, whether this Potiphar be the same as Joseph’s Master. The Hebrews²⁵, Origen²⁶, St. Jerom, Abbot Rupert, Tostat, and some others, think it is the same Person. And the Jews, cited in Origen, think it was Asineth that informed Potiphar of the Injustice of the Accusation that her Mother had form’d against Joseph. The Quality of Chief of the Army of Pharaoh, and that of Head of the Cooks or Butchers, or, of those that slew the Victims, (for the Hebrew Text²⁷ may signify all these), are not incompatible with the Dignity of Priest of Heliopolis. The different Ways by which the Names of Potiphar are written, in Genesis, chap. xxxviii. where the Master of Joseph is mention’d, and in chap. xli. wherein his Father-in-Law is mention’d, is so inconsiderable, that it hardly deserves to be taken Notice of. Lastly, Tho’ the City of Heliopolis, wherein Potiphar was Priest, was pretty far from that of Tanis, where the King of Egypt kept his Court, and where Potiphar had an Employment; it was not so far off, but that these two Employments were very consistent. Potiphar might divide his Time between the King’s Service, and his Attendance at the Temple of Heliopolis, in Quality of Priest of this Strabo l. 16.City; for it appears from Strabo, that anciently there were a great Number of Priests in this City, where their chief Employment was to study Philosophy and Astronomy, and where are still to be seen great Apartments where they had their Habitations. Nothing in Egypt was more grand than these Priests, and several among them have been exalted to the Crown itself. Their Quality of Priests, did not exclude them either from Offices at Court, or in the Camp.

We think, therefore, that no Inconvenience can follow, from supposing that Potiphar, Joseph’s Master, might afterwards become his Father-in-Law; and we have answer’d beforehand such Reasons as have been brought to support the contrary Opinion. These Reasons may be seen under the Article ASINETH, and in our Commentary upon Genesis, chap. xli.

POTTER. Frequent mention is made Jer. xviii. 3. על ,האבניםsuper duos lapides. Ecclus. xxxviii. 29, 30.of the Potter, in Scripture. Jeremiah represents him to us at work, sitting upon two Stones. And the Author of Ecclesiasticus says, So doth the Potter sitting at his Work, and turning the Wheel about with his Feet; who is alway carefully set at his Work, and maketh all his Work by Number: He fashioneth the Clay with his Arm, and boweth down his Strength before his Feet. Homer, Homer. Strab. l. 7. Geograph.quoted by Strabo, saith, That the Potter turns his Wheel with his Hands. And at this Day there is a great Difference in the several Manners and Postures used by the Potters, when they work at their Art.

Psal. ii. 9.When God would shew his absolute Dominion over Men, and his irresistible Power over their Hearts, he has often recourse to the Similitude of a Potter, who makes what he pleases of his Clay; sometimes a Vessel of Honour, and sometimes of Dishonour; now forming it, and then breaking it; now preserving it, and then rejecting it. Thou shalt break them with a Rod of Iron; thou shalt dash them in Pieces like a Potter’s Vessel. As the Clay is in the Potter’s Hand, to fashion it at his Pleasure; so Man is in the Hand of him that made him, to render to them as liketh him best. Shall the Thing formed say to him that Ecclus. xxxiii. 13.formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? Hath not the Potter Power over the Clay, of the same Lump, to make one Vessel to Rom. ix. 21.Honour, and another unto Dishonour? See also Jer. xviii. 2, 3, &c.

POTTERS FIELD; the Field that was bought with the Money, for which Judas Mat. xxvii. 7, 10.sold our Saviour Christ, and which he brought back again to the Temple. See the Article ACELDAMA. This Field is seen to this Day to the South of Mount Sion, and about a Stone’s Cast from the Pool of Siloam: It is surrounded by Walls of the Length of seventy Cubits, and of the Breadth of fifty; and cover’d with a Vault, with seven Openings above, to let²⁸

down the Bodies which are to be buried there, and which are consumed in the Space of twenty-four Hours. This Earth must necessarily abound with the Spirit of a very corrosive Salt, that can dissolve Flesh in so little Time. They say it was the Empress Helena that caus’d the Vault to be built over this Field, which is still there to be seen; and ‘tis said likewise, that she loaded several Ships with the Earth of Aceldama, and order’d it to be carry’d to Rome, where it was laid near the Mount Vatican, and still preserves to this Day its Quality of consuming dead Bodies in the Space of four and twenty Hours. This Place is call’d the Holy Field, and serves for a Burying-place to Strangers. Cornelius à Lapide assures us, Adrichom. Cornel. à Lapide in Matth.that he has seen it at Rome, and that he was inform’d of this Matter by the Curate of the Place.

We cannot tell what Use the Potter could make of this Field, except it was to dry his Pots before he baked them; and the Price of thirty Pieces of Silver, for which it was bought, shews it was of no considerable I have not found this Passage in this Author.Value. Raban Maur is quoted, to shew, that Judas himself was the first that was buried in this Place. The Jews of Pisa, they say, have a Burial-place very like this at Rome, where the Bodies are consumed in a very short Time; and they think themselves happy that they can be buried there, because they think the Earth was brought from Jerusalem. The Jews of the neighbouring Cities esteem it as an Honour, that they can be buried there; which is some Comfort to ‘em, for their Misfortune, that they cannot be buried at Jerusalem.

Misna tract. de Synedr. c. 6. n. 14, 15.We read in the Mishna, that they did not allow Malefactors, or such as were executed for their Crimes, a Burial in the Tombs of their Fathers, except that their Flesh had first been consumed in other Places appointed for the Punishment of such Offenders. And ‘tis, perhaps, for this Reason, that Joseph of Arimathea begg’d the Body of Jesus from Pilate, that he might immediately lay him in a private Sepulchre, before he was laid in this publick Burying-place, where he might have been undistinguish’d from the common Criminals.

POVERTY. Voluntary Poverty is commended, in the Gospel, as the first of the Matth. v. 3.Beatitudes: Jesus Christ has sanctify’d it in his own Person, and in that of his Parents; in that of his Apostles, and of the most perfect of his Disciples. But Involuntary Poverty, especially when it is extreme, can only be consider’d as a Consequence of Sin, and as a Punishment from God. Solomon besought Prov. xxx. 8.the Lord, to give him neither Poverty nor Riches; that is, he look’d upon both Extremes, as two dandangerous Rocks to Vertue: He asked only for what was convenient for him; Mendicitatem & divitias ne dederis mihi, tribue tantùm victui meo necessaria: Nothing is more earnestly recommended in the Ancient Law, and also in the New, than Alms and Compassion to the Poor.

Deut. xvii. 11, 12.Moses would have them to be admitted to the religious Feasts that were celebrated in the Temple; and order’d, that in the Fields, in the Vineyards, and upon the Trees, something should be left on purpose Lev. xix. 10. & xxiii. 22. Exod. xxiii. 11.for them; that in the Sabbathical Years and the Years of Jubilee, all should be left in common for the Poor, the Widow, and the Orphan. He commanded them to lend to the Poor, and acquainted them that the Poor should never be wanting in the Country, but that they should always have Opportunity to bestow their Alms. That if Deut. xv. 8, 9. Deut. xxiv. 12, 14. Matth. xix. 21. Luke xviii. 22.any Pledge be taken from the Poor, they shall not enter their Houses to take it by Force, but shall receive what is offer’d; and that if the Poor is forced to give his Goods or his Cloaths, they shall be restor’d him at Night, that he may have wherewith to cover himself. Jesus Christ has above all carry’d this Point of the Law of Moses, concerning Alms-giving, to its highest Pitch of Perfection; he has practised it himself, he has recommended it to his Disciples, and has inspired his Servants with the tenderest Charity towards the Poor. He advised those that would in earnest become his Disciples, to sell all that they had, and give it to the Poor. He gives us excellent Rules for the practising of Charity, and avoiding Vain-glory and Ostentation, which otherwise may be the Occasion of losing all the Fruits of our Charity. See Matth. vi. 1, 2, 3, 4.

The Jews take great Care of the Poor Leo of Modena, of the Ceremonies of the Jews, p. 1. c. 14.of their Nation. In most considerable Cities they have several establish’d Societies, on purpose for the Poor. One of ‘em, for Example, receives Alms for such Poor as are too modest to ask for themselves; another makes a Gathering for the Redemption of Captives; a third for providing Portions for poor Maidens. Besides which, there are two Persons appointed for the ordinary Collection, which is made every Sabbath-day. They go from House to House, without ever parting, that they may not be liable to the Suspicion of violating their Trust; and when they distribute what they have gather’d, they call a third Person to their Assistance. Every Saturday the Parnassim, or Judges of the Synagogue, give to each poor Person wherewith to maintain themselves and Family for the whole following Week.

When any one is found to be under any urgent Necessity, and which exceeds their ordinary Charities, the Chanter passes thro’ the Synagogue, and says, to all those that

promise their Relief, Blessed be such an one, who gives for such an Occasion. Every one promises according as he is disposed, and afterwards they gather from House to House what has been promis’d; for the Jews meddle not with Money on the Saturday. These Promises are always strictly perform’d. If the Synagogue of the Place is not thought to be sufficient for the present Occasion, they give out a Certificate, which they send to other Synagogues, who receive it into their Houses, and give their Contributions to it both publick and private.

Vide apud Selden. de Jure Nat. & Gent. l. 6. c. 6.‘Tis a Maxim of the Talmudists, that a poor Man ought never to be sent away empty-handed, even tho’ we could afford him but a Grain of Wheat. According to them, the least charitable should give a tenth part of their Estate, and others as far as a fifth part. Nor is it sufficient to relieve the Poor in his present Necessity, but he must be cloathed suitably to his Birth and Education; and he must have a Horse and a Slave bought for him, if he had such before he fell into Poverty. Those that refuse the Rates they are assessed at, are punish’d by the Judges, as they formerly were by the Sanhedrim, who condemned them to the Penalty of the Whip, ‘till they had satisfy’d what had been demanded of them. Maimonides says, that sometimes Entry was made into their Houses, and Pledges were forcibly taken for such Alms as were due from them.

PRAYER. The Prayers that we direct to God, are the ordinary Conveyance of the Graces that we receive from him. The Prayers of a just Man are of great Power with God. The Saints both of the Old and New Testament have pray’d; Jesus Christ himself, the great Example of the Righteous, and of the Elect, taught us to pray, to inform us, that ‘tis by that we honour God, and draw down upon our selves his Favours and his Graces. Multum valet deprecatio justi assidua, says St. James. The Apostle Jac. v. 16, 17.St. Paul throughout almost all his Epistles, entreats the Faithful to pray for him, or offers to God his own Prayers for them.

Publick Prayer. Quite down from the first Promulgation of the Law, the Hebrew Nation did not intermit to have publick Prayer in the Tabernacle, or in the Temple, as Time served. This publick Prayer consisted in the Offering of the Evening and Morning Sacrifices, every Day of the Year, and in the Prayers that the Priests and Levites offer’d up in this Place. We do not pretend to affirm, that there was then a regular Form or Office established in the Temple, something like what we see in our religious Communities: But there was something equivalent to it; every Day they offer’d there Sacrifices, Incense, Offerings, First-fruits; they perform’d there every Day the Ceremonies for the Redemption of the First-born, for the Purification of such Men or Women as had contracted any Pollutions; in a Word, they came thither from all Parts of Palestine, to discharge their Vows, and to satisfy their particular Devotions, not only on the great and solemn Days, but also on ordinary Days; but nothing of this was perform’d without Prayer.

The Author of Psal. cxix. says, that he pray’d to God, or praised him seven times a -day. Septies in die laudem dixi tibi. And the Author of Psal. lv. says; Evening and Morning, and at Noon will I pray, and cry Dan. vi. 10.aloud, and he shall hear my Voice. Daniel bent his Knees three times a-day, and worshipped the Lord, opening his Windows, and turning himself towards Jerusalem. Tribus temporibus in die flectebat genua sua, & adorabat. The Levites that were appointed to take Care of the Temple, lifted up their Hands in the Night-time, and encouraged one another to adore the Lord. In noctibus extollite manus vestras Psalm cxxxiii. 2. Psal. cxviii. 62.in sancta, & benedicite Domino. The Psalmist says, that he arose in the Middle of the Night, to praise the Lord. Media nocte surgebam ad confitendum tibi. In NehemiahNehem. ix. 3. we see four Hours of Prayer on a Fast Day. Surrexerunt ad standum & legendum quater in die, & quater confitebantur & adorabant Dominum.

Misnah in Barachot. c. 4. §. 3.Some Rabbins inform us, that Abraham instituted Morning-prayer, Isaac that at Mid-day, and Jacob that at Evening. Others think, that nothing was fix’d relating to the Hour or Form of Prayer, ‘till the Time of the Captivity of Babylon. a Before that Time every one pray’d as his Devotion prompted him, and according as his Heart was disposed. But during the Captivity, Esdras observing that several Jews mingled foreign Terms with their Prayers, which were not suitable to the Sanctity of that Exercise; he compos’d eighteen Benedictions, which every Israelite is obliged to learn, and to repeat every Day. The Rabbi Gamaliel added a nineteenth to them, a little while before the Destruction of the Temple. It is against Apostates and Hereticks, and it is not doubted but under these Names he meant the Christians. Sure it is that these eighteen Prayers are of great Antiquity; for the Misnah speaks of them as of a Formula that had been for a long Time established.

The same Esdras also fix’d the Time for Prayer.²⁹ And as they offer’d to God the perpetual Sacrifice in the Evening and Morning,³⁰

Morning, he appointed two solemn Prayers for these two Seasons. On Festival Days and the Sabbath there was a Sacrifice about the Middle of the Day; he order’d a third Prayer for this Time also. And because the Evening Sacrifice was consuming in the Night-time, he appointed a Nocturnal Prayer.

However, there are but three Hours that are obligatory each Day for Prayer, in the Morning, at Noon, and in the Evening. Morning Prayer might be perform’d any time from Sun-rising to the third Hour of the Day; that is, ‘till nine o’Clock in the Morning in the Equinox. That in the Middle of the Day, from the third Hour to the sixth; that is, from nine in the Morning ‘till Noon. That in the Evening from three o’- Clock in the Afternoon ‘till six in the Evening, during the Equinox. The Prayer that was added on Festivals was said about nine o’Clock, and might be compleated at Noon. That upon Fast Days was not settled.

The publick Prayers that were celebrated in the Synagogues, were perform’d thrice every Day. The Minister began the Service with a Prayer which was call’d Kaddish, because therein they ask’d of God to sanctify his Name, after this Manner; O God, let thy Name be magnify’d and sanctify’d in the World, which thou hast created according to thy good Pleasure. Let thy Kingdom have Dominion therein, let Redemption flourish, and let the Messiah come speedily, that thy Name may be glorify’d, &c. This Prayer passes for the most antient that the Jews have preserved; and as it is rehearsed in the Chaldee Language, it gives Room to think, that it was composed during the Babylonian Captivity, or a little Time after the Return from that Captivity. The People answer, Amen. It seems to be from hence that our Saviour borrow’d those Words in the Lord’s Prayer; Hallowed be thy Name, thy Kingdom come.

After this Anthem, or Benediction, they heretofore repeated the Decalogue, which is the Foundation of the Jewish Religion. But at present they content themselves with reading a Passage out of the fifth Chapter of Deuteronomy, which begins with these Words; Hear, O Israel. When this Lesson is ended, as also the Benediction that follow’d, the whole Assembly arose, and pray’d standing with a low Voice, the Minister as well as the rest. After this private Prayer, every one goes three Steps backwards out of Respect, and the Minister repeats the eighteen Prayers, of which the three first contain the Praises of God, the twelve following regard the Necessities of the Church and of private Persons, and the three last contain a Confession of their own Unworthiness and Insufficiency. It is allow’d after the third Blessing to resume their Places again, that is, to advance three Steps forwards.

When they are come to the Prayer which is call’d Modim, they must stoop a little. They sit down while they repeat other Prayers, sometimes they hang down their Heads, at other Times they lift up their Voice, according to the Tenour of the Prayer that is pronounced. After several Benedictions and several Psalms, they repeat the Anthem, by which the Office was begun. Then the Minister pronounces the Benediction to the People, who withdraw, saying; Lord, do thou guide me in thy Justice, and prepare the Way before me, because of my Enemies. And such are the Morning Prayers.

Those at Noon and at Evening are also perform’d regularly every Day. The Minister of the Synagogue presides therein, and the Prayers, the Benedictions, and the Lessons are different, but yet almost in the same Order. The Language they use is the Hebrew, with some Forms of Prayer in the Chaldee Tongue. The Generality of the Jews do not perfectly understand either of these Languages; but the long Use they have had, of praying in these Tongues, and the great Number of Words they are still acquainted with in both, are the Reasons that they do not answer Amen without some Understanding of what they say. Just as among us [Roman Catholicks] many Persons that never study’d the Latin Tongue, yet, however, understand it pretty well in the Reading of the Gospel, and in the Pronunciation of the Prayers of the Church, so as to join their Attention to that of the Priests.

Every Jew is oblig’d to repeat an Hundred Benedictions in a Day. To these Benedictions they must add certain Extracts out of the Psalms, which are the most effectual for raising a Spirit of Piety. They chiefly make Choice of the latter Verses of the hundred and forty-sixth Psalm, and every one sings them according to the Custom of his Country. The Germans sing them higher, and with greater Vehemence than others. The Spaniards and those of the Levant approach nearer to the Turkish Way of Singing; and the Italians sing them composedly, and with Ease.

When they have sung these Psalms, they read the Shema, that is to say, three different Sections taken out of Deuteronomy vi. 4, 9. xi. 19, 21. and Numbers xv. 37, 41. They are call’d Shema, because the first of these Sections begins by the Word Shema, which signifies, Hear. These Sections of שמע Shemah, Audi.Scripture are interrupted by Prayers and Blessings, which often mention the Unity of God. These Prayers are ended by blessing God who redeems Israel; and when they pronounce these last Words, they rise up, and begin to repeat the eighteen

Prayers and Benedictions, which Esdras left to the great Synagogue, to be a Rule and Standard for all their Prayers. When they have rehearsed these Benedictions, they sit down, they stoop with their Faces to the Ground, they raise their Heads a little, and begin their private Prayers. They repeat the hundred and forty-sixth Psalm, and then go about their Business.

Some repeat their hundred Benedictions one after another, that they may be discharged of them, as of a Task and Labour imposed upon them. But the Doctors condemn this Custom, because each Benediction should be placed in its proper Place, and connected to its proper Subject. In the Evening they begin their Prayers again, pretty nearly in the same Form; at least Maimonides tells us so, and he is the most exact of the Jewish Authors, and one whom Christian Writers chiefly rely upon.

Leo of Modena, Ceremonies of the Jews, part. 1. c. 9.Leo of Modena says, that the Custom of the greatest Part of the Jews is, to repeat along with their Morning Prayers in the Synagogue, the hundred Benedictions we now spoke of. For which Reason they call these Prayers in the Morning, Meah Beracoth, that is, the hundred Benedictions. He says, moreover, that the Rabbins have obliged the Jews to repeat Blessings and Praises peculiar to God, not only in their Prayers, and every Time they receive any Favour from him; but also on all unforeseen Occasions, and at every Action they do, whether they eat or drink, or smell any sweet Savour; lastly, for every Precept of the Law, or of the Rabbins. And this they extend to whatever new or extraordinary Thing presents itself to them. For they have different Benedictions for every thing. The Particulars of this may be seen in a large Treatise, which the Rabbins have composed about this Matter.

In the Morning, as soon as they are up, they say; Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, King of the World, who restorest Life to the Dead, who enlightenest the Blind, and who spreadest the Earth over the Waters: And several other Things of a like kind. If they wash their Hands, according to the Precept, they say; Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, King of the World, who hast sanctify’d us by thy Precepts, and hast commanded us to wash our Hands. When they apply themselves to study the Law; Blessed be Thou, &c. who hast given us the Law. When they take Food; Blessed be Thou, &c. who bringest Bread out of the Earth. When they drink; Blessed be Thou, &c. Creator of the Fruit of the Vine. At eating such Fruits as grow upon Trees; Blessed be Thou, &c. Creator of the Fruit of the Tree. For Fruits of the Earth; Blessed be Thou, &c. Creator of the Fruits of the Earth. For good Scents; Blessed be Thou, &c. who hast created such a Smell or Scent. When they see a high Mountain, or a wide Extent of Sea; Blessed be Thou, &c. Creator of all Things at the Beginning. At the Commencing of solemn Festivals, or when they eat, or put on any thing new; Blessed be Thou, &c. who hast given us Life, and hast preserved us to this Day. If any one dies that belongs to them; Blessed art Thou, Judge of Truth.

Lastly, On all Occasions, before and after every Action, they repeat some Blessing to God, thinking it to be a Sin of Ingratitude, to enjoy or make use of any thing in this World, without first acknowledging by some Thanksgiving, that they hold it from God, and that he is Lord and Master of every thing.

In the Jewish Prayers we may observe in Basnage, History of the Jews, t. 5. l. 7. c. 17. Matth. vi. 7. Heb. v. 7.general, their excessive Length, and their Battology, or their tedious Repetitions, which Jesus Christ reproaches them with in his Gospel. When ye pray, use not vain Repetitions as the Heathen do; for they think that they shall be heard for their much Speaking. They are not at all reform’d by this, in the Length of their Prayers. Secondly, as to their Posture. They generally pray sitting, or stooping with their Faces towards the Ground. They stretch out their Feet and their Hands, and make a loud Cry. Jesus Christ pray’d thus in the Garden of Olives. He prostrated himself, and sent forth a great Cry. Who in the Days of his Flesh, when he had offer’d up Prayers and Supplications, with strong Crying and Tears. Thirdly, they think that Prayers are to supply the Place of Sacrifices, which are ceased by the Destruction of the Temple and its Altars; they give them the same Name, and impute to them the same Efficacy.

Ephes. vi. 18.It is very likely that the Prayers of the first Believers were formed upon the Model of those of the Jews. We have seen some Traces of the first and chief Benediction of the Jews, in the first Articles of the Lord’s Prayer. Our Saviour principally intended to oppose its Brevity to the Battology of the Jews. St. Paul gives Directions, that the Faithful should pray in all Places, and 1 Thes. v. 17. 1 Tim. ii. 8. 1 Cor. x. 31.at all Times, lifting up pure Hands towards Heaven, and blessing God for all Things, whether in eating or drinking, or doing any other Action; and that every thing may be done to the Glory of God. In a Word, our Saviour has recommended to us, to pray Luk. xviii. 1. xxi. 36.without ceasing. Vigilate omni tempore orantes.

The Reader will not be displeased to see here the eighteen Prayers appointed by Esdras, and the nineteenth appointed by Gamaliel. This is commonly placed in the twelfth Place, and we shall not remove it from thence.

I. “ Blessed

I. “ Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, God of our Fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob; the great God, the powerful, the terrible, the high -exalted, the liberal Dispenser of good Things, the Creator and Possessor of the Universe; who remembrest the good Actions of our Fathers, and who in thy Love dost send a Redeemer to their Posterity, for the Love of thy Name. O King our Succour, our Saviour and our Buckler: Blessed be thou, O Lord, the Shield of Abraham. II. “ O Lord, thou art potent for ever. Thou raisest up the Dead, thou art powerful to save, thou sendest the Dew, thou suppressest the Winds, thou makest the Rain to descend upon the Earth, and by thy Goodness thou supportest all living Creatures. Thy rich Mercy raises up the Dead, thou liftest up those that fall, thou curest the Sick, thou unbindest those that are in Fetters, thou shewest the Truth of thy Promises to those that sleep in the Dust. Who is comparable to Thee, O Lord Almighty? who is like to thee, O King? who killest and makest alive, and who makest Salvation to spring up like the Grass of the Field. Thou art faithful, even to raising us from the Dead. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who raisest up the Dead. III. “ Thou art holy, and thy Name is holy, thy Saints praise thee every Day, for Thou art a great and an holy King. O God, blessed be Thou, O Lord, O God most holy. IV. “ ‘Tis Thou whose Goodness givest Men all their Knowledge, and teaches them Wisdom. Grant us thy Mercy, give us Knowledge, Wisdom, and Prudence. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, whose Goodness gives Understanding and Knowledge to Men.

V. “ Bring us back, O Father, to the Observation of thy Law, and grant that we may continue firm to thy Precepts, devoted to thy Worship, O King, and converted to Thee, by a perfect Repentance in thy Presence. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who art willing to receive us to Repentance. VI. “ Have Mercy on us, O Father, for we have sinned. Pardon us, O King, for we have transgressed thy Laws. For thou art a merciful God, and ready to forgive. Blessed be Thou, most merciful Lord, who so abundantly displayest thy Mercies, in the Pardon of our Sins. VII. “ Look with Pity on our Afflictions, we beseech Thee. Take our Side in all our Quarrels. Plead our Cause in all our Differences. Make haste to redeem us by a perfect Redemption, for the Love of thy Name. For Thou art our God, our King, and a powerful Redeemer. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, the Redeemer of Israel. VIII. “ Cure us, O Lord our God, and we shall be cured, save us, and we shall be saved, for thou art our Praise. Send us Health, give us a compleat Remedy for all our Weaknesses, our Pains, and our Wounds. For thou art a God that curest, and thou art merciful. Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, who curest thy People Israel. IX. “ Bless us, O Lord our God, in all the Works of our Hands. Bless all the Seasons of the Year for our use. Give us Rain and Dew, with thy Blessing upon all our Country. Replenish the whole Earth with thy Benedictions, and send necessary Moisture upon all the Places of the habitable Earth. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who extendest thy Benediction upon the Year.

X. “ Assemble us all together, at the Sound of the great Trumpet, to cause us to enjoy Liberty. Display the Standard, to bring back into their own Country all those of the Captivity, from the four Corners of the Earth. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who assemblest the dispersed of thy People Israel. XI. “ Restore us our Judges as heretofore, and our Counsellors as at the Beginning. Put away from us Affliction and Trouble. Do Thou only reign over us, in thy Goodness and Mercy, in Justice and Equity. Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, who lovest Justice and That is, The Roman Empire.Equity. XII. (This twelfth Prayer is thought to be against the Christians.) “ Let there be no Hope for them who renounce the true Religion. Let all Hereticks, how many soever they may be, perish as in a Moment, and let the Kingdom of Pride be quickly destroy’d in our Days. Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, who destroyest the Wicked, and humblest the Proud.

XIII. “ Let thy Compassion be moved for the Good and the Just, for the Proselytes of Justice, and for the rest of thy People of the House of Israel, O Lord our God; and reward all those who put their Trust in thy Name, and grant to us thy Law, and let us never be confounded, for we have put our Trust in Thee. Blessed be thou, O Lord, the Support and the Confidence of the Just. XIV. “ Vouchsafe to dwell in the Midst of thy City Jerusalem, according to thy Promise. Build it up so that it may continue for ever, and do it quickly in our Days. Blessed be thou, O Lord, who buildest up Jerusalem. XV. “ Let the Race of David thy Servant sprout up, grow and flourish, and let the Horn of thy Salvation be exalted; for we daily expect thy Salvation. Blessed be

“ be Thou, O Lord, who causest the Horn of our Salvation to flourish.

XVI. “ Hear our Voice, O Lord our God, most beneficent Father; pardon us, and have Mercy on us. Receive our Prayers in thy Mercy and Favour, and send us not away out of thy Presence, O King, with empty Hands. For Thou hearest with Pity the Prayers of thy People Israel. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who heareth our Prayers.

XVII. “ Accept thy People Israel, O Lord our God, and have Regard to their Prayers. Restore thy Worship in the inward Parts of thy Temple. Make haste to receive with Favour and Love the Burnt-offerings of Israel, and their Prayers; and let the Worship of Israel thy People be always acceptable to Thee. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who restorest thy divine Presence to Sion.

XVIII. “ We render Thee our Praises and Thanksgivings, for Thou art the Lord our God, the God of our Fathers for ever. Thou art our Rock, and the Rock of our Life, the Buckler of our Salvation. We render Thee our Thanks from Generation to Generation, and we will declare thy Praises, for our Life is always in thy Hands, and our Soul is ever depending on Thee, because thy Signs are always with us; and thy Miracles and marvellous Goodness are continually before our Eyes, Morning, Evening, and Night. Thou art good, and thy Compassions cannot be exhausted. Thou art merciful, and thy Kindnesses never fail. We hope in Thee for ever, and may thy Name, O King, be for ever blessed for so great Favours. May it be magnify’d and glorify’d for all Eternity, and may every thing that breathes pay Thee its Tribute of Thanks. Selah. And may they celebrate thy Name in Truth and Sincerity, O God of our Salvation and our Succour. Selah. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, whose Name is good, and to whom it is fit always to render Praises and Thanksgivings.

XIX. “ Grant to us, and to Israel thy People, Peace, Favour, Blessing, Grace, Kindness, and Piety. Bless us, O our Father, bless us all together, by the Light of thy Face. For by the Light of thy Face Thou hast given us, O Lord our God, the Law of Life, Love, Kindness, Equity, Benediction, Piety, Life, and Peace. May it please Thee at all Times and Seasons to bless thy People Israel, and to grant them Peace. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who blessest thy People Israel, and givest them Peace. “ Amen.

Prayers for the Dead. I shall confine myself here to what is found in Scripture, concerning Prayer for the Dead. In the second Book of Maccabees it is said, that Judas, sirnamed Maccabeus, made a Gathering 2 Maccab. xii. 43.throughout the Company, to the Sum of two thousand Drachms of Silver; he sent it to Jerusalem to offer a Sin-offering, doing therein very well and honestly, in that he was mindful of the Resurrection. For if he had not hoped that they that were slain should have risen again, it had been superfluous and vain to pray for the Dead. And also in that he perceived that there was great Favour laid up for those that died godly. (It was an holy and good Thought.) Whereupon he made a Reconciliation for the Dead, that they might be delivered from Sin. The Law does not enjoin Prayers for the Dead; but the Practice of the Jews, founded upon their Opinion of the Immortality of the Soul, and the Rewards and Punishments of another Life. The modern Jews follow the Tradition of their Ancestors, in the Prayers and Alms which they make for the Dead.

Difficulties are started concerning this Passage of the Maccabees now quoted. How could it be said, that these Soldiers died in Piety, qui cum pietate dormitionem acceperant, who had transgressed the Law by a kind of Sacrilege, taking Things that had been consecrated to Idols? and how could Alms and Sacrifices be of Use to them? For we know that mortal Sin is not expiated by this kind of Things. It may be answer’d, that Judas might presume that the Soldiers were touch’d with Repentance for their Crime before they died: That God had inflicted Death upon them, to expiate in this Life a Fault that was not mortal, or that these Men had an Intention of delivering up these Spoils to the General after the Battle, without reflecting upon their having been consecrated to Idols. Lastly, the Charity of Judas inspired him with Sentiments of Indulgence, which we are not allow’d to condemn; and without entering upon this Inquiry, it is enough for us to shew, that his Opinion was, that Alms, and Sacrifices, and Prayers were of use for the Consolation of the Dead. We require no more to be granted here.

Another Passage, proving the Belief and Practice of Prayers for the Dead, is taken out of the Second Epistle of St. Paul to Timothy, chap. i. 18. The Lord grant unto him (Onesiphorus) that he may find Mercy of the Lord in that Day. And in how many Things he ministred unto me at Ephesus, thou knowest very well. There is great Probability that Onesiphorus was dead at that Time. St. Paul speaks of him as of a Man no longer in this World. In the same Epistle, ch. iv. 19. he salutes the Family of Onesiphorus, but does not mention him himself. Grotius does not doubt but that Onesiphorus was dead; if it

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