Laws

LAWS. The Word Law in Scripture, when alone, is taken for the Law of Moses, and sometimes for the whole Religion of the Jews in Opposition to the Christian Religion and the Gospel. The Law of Moses is the most ancient that we know of in the World. For although the Egyptians, for Example, the Assyrians, and several other People were already formed in his Time, and consequently had already some kind of Laws amongst them; nevertheless we do not see any Nation that had a Body of Laws before the Hebrews. Josephus remarks¹, that the Greek Legislators were very modern in Comparison of Moses, and that the ancient Greeks were unacquainted with the very Term Nomos, which signifies Law, and it is not to be met with in Homer, the most ancient Writer, as many think, that the Greeks had.

The Rabbins² pretend, that Noah’s Sons, received certain Laws which compose the Law of Nature, and have always obliged all People in the World, of whatever Countrey they may be. Maimonides believes, that the six first were given to Adam, and that God added a seventh to Noah and his Sons. These Precepts are such as here follow. The First ordains Submission to Judges and Magistrates; the Second forbids Blasphemy against God; the Third Idolatry and Superstition; the Fourth Incest, Sodomy, Bestiality, and Sins against Nature; the Fifth Murder, and all Sort of Effusion of Blood; the Sixth Theft; the Seventh not to eat the Limb of any Animal while living. There is a Distinction generally made between the Law of Nature, and positive Laws. The Law of Nature is that which is stamped upon our Hearts, such as the Obligation of worshipping the supreme Being, of honouring our Parents, and those who are established in any Dignities, to obey Superiors, to do that to no Man which we would not have any one do to us, &c. Positive Laws are of several Sorts; some are moral, others civil and political, and others again ceremonial. Moral Laws are generally no more than Consequences or Explanations of the Laws of Nature. Judicial, Civil, and Political Laws regard principally the Duties of Men among themselves, the Order and Polity of the State; they restrain the Attempts of wicked Men, defend the weak from the Opposition of the strong, and regulate the Rights and Power of temporal Potentates. Lastly, ceremonial Laws have a Respect to the external Worship which is due to God, the Duties of both Ministers and People towards God, and their reciprocal Obligations to one another, with Relation to the divine Being.

The old Law was given to the Hebrews, by the Intervention of Moses, on Mount Sinai, fifty Days after their Departure out of Egypt, in the Year of the World 2513 before J. C. 1487. before the Vulgar Æra 1491. The principal Laws are these of the Decalogue, which God gave to Moses written Exod. xx. 1, 2, &c.upon Tables of Stone; which Laws are these following.

1. Thou shalt have no other Gods before me.

2. Thou shalt not make to thy self any graven Images, nor any Representation of any Thing above in the Heavens, nor of any Thing below upon the Earth, nor of any Thing in the Waters under the Earth. Thou shalt not bow down to them, nor worship them; for I am the Lord thy God. 3. Thou shalt not take the Name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will surely punish him who shall take his Name in vain, or falsly.

3. Remember that thou keep holy the Sabbath Day. Upon this Day thou shalt do no Work, thou nor thy Son, nor thy Daughter, nor the Stranger which is in thy Gates, nor thy Man Servant, nor thy Maid Servant, nor thy Beasts for Service.

4. Honour thy Father and thy Mother, that thy Days may be long in the Land, which the Lord thy God giveth thee.

5. Thou shalt do no Murder.

6. Thou shalt not commit Adultery.

7. Thou shalt not steal.

8. Thou shalt not bear false Witness against thy Neighbour.

9. Thou shalt not covet thy Neighbour’s House, nor his Wife, nor his Slave, nor his Ox, nor his Ass, nor any Thing besides belonging to him.

These are what the Jews call the ten Words; and the Greeks, Decalogoi, from whence we form the Word Decalogue.

Some learned Men ° have been of Opinion, that Moses in the Generality of his Laws intended either to imitate those of the Egyptians, or to set down the Reverse of their Customs and Maxims, or to lay a Restraint upon the Hebrews, and thereby prevent their falling into those Errors, Idolatries and Superstitions, which they had seen in Egypt. Others on the contrary have asserted, that the Egyptians imitated, in Part at least, the Hebrew Laws. In this Diversity of Opinions, we think we ought ingenuously to confess, that the Hebrews in Reality have often imitated the Egyptians, and that reciprocally the Egyptians have likewise sometimes copied after the Hebrews: That the Egyptians having a different Turn of Mind, have upon many Occasions kept at a Distance from the Hebrews, and established religious Practices very different from theirs, with a View only of contradicting them, and gratifying their Animosity and Antipathy. In like Manner we have great Reason to believe, that the Practices of the Mosaick Laws, which are contrary to the Idolatry of the Egyptians, their Superstitions, and religious Observances, were not instituted without Design, and that the Legislator of the Jews intended to cure the Israelites of their Proneness to Idolatry, and set Barriers to the evil Habits which they had contracted in Egypt. As the Hebrew People were, as we may say, formed in Egypt, and Idolatry was very ancient in this Countrey, there can be reasonably no Question made, but that they there took up their violent Passion for Idols; and that Moses, who was no Stranger to their evil Disposition in this Respect, was very careful to provide some powerful Remedies against it. As to other Laws, whether judicial or ceremonial, we may believe that he acted according to his Prudence, in retaining³what might be useful in those of the Egyptians, in rectifying such as might be made good, and by enacting contrary Laws, in Order to suppress such as were opposite to Justice, Charity, Reason, or even to the Interest of his People.

The Law of Moses being the Shadow only of Heb. x. 1. Heb. vii. 19.Things to come, and bringing nothing to its Perfection, as Saint Paul says, it was necessary that Jesus Christ should complete what was imperfect in it, should reform the Abuses which it tolerated, and should fulfill what that only promised and typified. This is in Reality what he has executed with great Perfection. He declares in the Gospel, that he came not to destroy the Law, but to perfect it. He has explained, Math. v. 17.modified, and restrained the Law of Moses, and particularly the Explanations which the Rabbins and Masters in Israel had made of it; Explanations, which were rather Corruptions, than Illustrations of the Law. Saint Paul hath, in some Sort, finished what our Saviour had but begun; or rather he hath set that in its full Light, which his Master only intimated, and gave a Glympse of. As that the Law of Moses is in some Sort abrogated by the Gospel, that since the Death of the Messiah the legal Ceremonies are of no Use or Obligation; that we are no longer under the Yoke of the Law, but under Grace; that Jesus Christ hath procured for us the Liberty of Sons, instead of the Spirit of Bondage, which reigned under the Old Testament: In a Word, that it is neither the Law nor the Works of it, that justify us, but Faith Rom. vi. 14.animated by Charity, and accompanied with good moral Works. As to the rest, when we say, that the Gospel hath rescued us from the Yoke of the Law, we understand only the Precepts of the Ceremonial and judicial Law, and not those moral Precepts, the Obligation whereof is indispensable, and the Observation Rom. iii. 20. Gal. ii. 16.whereof is still much more perfect, and more extensive in the Law of Grace, than it was under the Old Law.

As to the particular Laws of Moses, they who would see them in their full Extent may consult the Articles of this Dictionary, where they are treated of; for Example, Passover, Sabbath, Blasphemy, Adultery, Sacrifices, Burnt-Offerings, &c. We shall here only give a short Abridgment of the Laws of Moses, such as may be found in our Preface upon Deuteronomy.

God the Creator of Heaven and Earth chooses the Race of Abraham for his peculiar People. He makes a solemn Covenant with them at Sinai, gives them the Law, and declares that he is the only God, that he alone will be adored, loved and served. He requires all the Love and Application, the whole Heart of those who are his, and belong to him. As he is jealous of his Glory, and severe in punishing, as well as merciful towards his Servants, and faithful in his Promises: He threatens to punish the Children for their Fathers to the third and fourth Generation; but then he promises to shew Mercy unto them who fear him to a Thousand Generations. He enjoins Men to swear by his Name, when they are obliged to swear; and forbids to swear ever by strange Gods, and even to pronounce their Names, much more to adore them, and represent them under Figures of Animals, Birds, Fishes, or Stars. Blasphemy against God is punished with Death, and vain Swearing, Lying and Calumny, are condemned as Insults upon Truth, and the sacred Name of God. It is allowable not to make any Vows to Ex. xxiii.the Lord; but as soon as they are made, there is to be no Delay in performing them; if any defer paying them, God will revenge it, and impute this Delay to them as a Sin. He condemns those who tempt him, and question his supreme Power, those who consult Magicians, Soothsayers, false Prophets, and Fortune-Tellers; in a Word, he detests all Sorts of Divinations, Witchcraft, Superstitions, Magick, Sorcery, and Omens. He requires a pure and sincere Worship without a Mixture of any strange Worship, that no Notice should be taken of Dreams, that they should not cut their Hair round in Honour of any false Gods, as Idolaters do; that they should make no Marks or Incisions upon their Bodies; that Magicians should be punished with Death, and they who have a Familiar Spirit, and such false Prophets, as would induce the People to be guilty of Idolatry. In general, Idolatry, they who solicit others to it, and the Cities which fall under the Guilt of it, are devoted to the Curse and Death. Prohibitions upon Pain of Death against imitating Idolaters in their Mourning; against making Use at any Time of the anointing Oil or Perfume used in the Temple; an Order to keep themselves always pure and holy, as being the Children, Servants and People of an holy God; to study Night and Day his holy Law, to meditate upon it, to wear it upon their Wrists, and upon their Foreheads, and to write it upon the Door Posts.

In the Wilderness God ordained, that they should set up a Tent for him, as for the Monarch of Israel, who marched amidst his People; that every one should contribute to this Work; that the Priests alone should serve in it, and come near it; that Sacrifices should be offered, and Altars erected to him in this Place only: That all the Beasts which should be killed, either within or without the Camp, should be presented at the Door of the Tabernacle, under Pain, upon the Deut. xii. Contraveners of this Order, of being treated as Murderers: And when the People of Israel should come into the promised Land, they should go three Times every Year to the Ex. xxiii. 14. xxxi. 20. Deut. xv.Temple, there to pay their Homage to their Lord in the Place, which should be chosen and appointed by God himself; and withal should not appear there with empty Hands. That they should take Care how they imitated the Canaanites in the Worship which they paid him, of erecting Statues and Altars to him, and of planting consecrated Groves, even about the Altar belonging to his Temple. He requires Deut. xvi. 21, 22.his People to bring the First-Fruits and Tenths, which he appointed for the Subsistence and Support of his Priests and Servants; and as a Mark of their Dependance and Ex. xxii. 29, 30. Deut. xxxi. 1, 2. Deut. xxvi. 4, 5. iv.Servitude they should present them to the Ministers of the Lord, with this Declaration. I profess this Day unto the Lord thy God, that I am come unto the Countrey which the Lord sware unto our Fathers for to give us. And when the Priest had taken the Basket, wherein were the First-Fruits, the Israelite continued: A Syrian ready to perish was my Father, and he went down into Egypt, and sojourned with a few, and became there a Nation great, mighty and populous. And the Egyptians evil intreated us and afflicted us, and laid upon us hard Bondage: And when we cried out unto the Lord God of our Fathers, the Lord heard our Voice, and looked on our Affliction, and our Labour, and our Oppression. And the Lord brought us forth out of Egypt with a mighty Hand, and with an outstretched Arm, and hath brought us into this Place, and given us a Land flowing with Milk and Honey. And now behold I have brought the first Fruits which thou, O Lord, hast given me.

Besides the Tythes and First-Fruits which were offered him, he required them to come every Year, and make religious Feasts in his Deut. xiv. 23, 24.Temples; upon which Occasion they rejoyced before him, and invited the Levite, the Poor, the Widow, and the Orphan. At these Feasts the following Prayer or Declaration was made before the Lord. I have brought away the hallowed Deut. xxvi. 13, 14.Things out of mine House, and also have given them unto the Levite, and unto the Stranger, to the Fatherless, and to the Widow, according to all thy Commandments which thou hast commanded me. I have not eat thereof in my Mourning, neither have I taken ought thereof for any unclean Use, nor given ought thereof for the Dead; but have hearkened to the Voice of the Lord my God. Look down therefore from thy holy Habitation, from Heaven, and bless thy People Israel, and the Land which thou hast given us, a Land that floweth with Milk and Honey. Every three Years instead of coming to keep their Feasts in the Temple, they might make them every Man in the Place of his Residence.

The Priests had many Prerogatives, and different Employments, all very honourable. They alone served at the Altar, offered the Blood and Fat, and the other Part of the Sacrifices, which were consumed by the Fire upon the Altar. They alone entred the Holy to burn Incense there, to kindle the Lamps, and place the Shew-Bread every Sabbath Day. They had their Share of all the Peace-Offerings, and of all the Sin-Offerings; and for the Offerings of Bread and Liquors, as soon as a very small Quantity of them was once thrown into the Fire upon the Altar, the rest belonged to the Priest in waiting. The Priest Lev. ii. 3. Lev. vii. 31, 32, 33. Lev. xxii. 23, &c. Exod. xiii. 1, 2. and xxxiv. 19, 20, 21. Numb. xviii. 16. Lev. vi. 20. vii. 6. V. 30, 31. Lev. vii. 1, 2, 3. Lev. vii. 18.had the right Shoulder and the Breast of the Peace-Offerings. The Fat of the Sacrifice was burnt upon the Fire; and the Blood of it was poured down at the Foot of the Altar. The rest of the Flesh belonged to him, who gave the Victim. Of the Sin-Offerings, the Kidneys, the Rump, the Fat which covers the Intrails, the Caul above the Liver, and the Blood were offered to the Lord. All the rest belonged to the Priests. The Burnt-Offerings were consumed entirely upon the Fire, and the Priest had no Advantage besides the Skin of the Victim: The Flesh of all Peace-Offerings was eaten in private Houses, or in the Temple: They could use none of it but upon the Day of Sacrifice, or the next Day; if any Thing remained upon the third Day it was burnt. The Priests were not permitted to eat the Flesh of Sin-Offerings any where but in the Temple, they were not allowed to carry any of it out: But as to their Share of the Peace-Offerings, they might eat it in their Houses with their Wives and Children, as well as the First-Fruits, Tenths, First-born, Things devoted, and Offerings made unto the Lord. None but Sin-Offerings were reserved for the Priests alone actually officiating in the Temple, Lev. x. 14. Numb. xviii. 13, &c.and exempt from any Uncleanness. If a Priest eat any Thing hallowed during his Impurity, he was punished with Death. Neither the Hireling who was working at the Priest’s House, nor any other Stranger, could partake of it; but the Priest’s Slave might eat of it. The Priest’s Daughter, as soon as she was married to a Man who was not of the sacerdotal Family, no longer partook of any hallowed Meats; but as soon as she was either a Widow or divorced, she might eat of them: Under the Name of Things hallowed were understood the Parts of the Peace-Offerings, or other Offerings made immediately at the Temple, and separated from what was offered upon the Altar: For the Tenths and First-Fruits, which were properly the Revenue of Priests, might be used indifferently like every other common and ordinary Food; otherwise what should the Priests and Levites have subsisted on during their casual or natural Impurities?

All the First-born, both of Men and tame Beasts were the Lord’s. The first-born of Men were redeemed with the Sum of five Shekels. The Firstlings likewise of Beasts, by their Nature unclean, such as the Ass and Camel, were redeemed. The Firstling of an Ass was exchanged for a Sheep; it might likewise be redeemed for the Value of five Shekels: If it were not redeemed, V. 17, 18.it was to be killed. Clean Beasts, such as the Ox, the Sheep and the Goat, were not redeemed: they were killed, the Fat of them was offered on the Fire, and the Blood poured out at the Foot of the Altar; all the rest remained to the Priests. The Fruits of Lev. xix. 23, 24, 25.new planted Trees were esteemed unclean, during the first four Years; after the fourth Year all the Fruit was the Lords; and the fifth, the Proprietor began to taste of it.

Numb. iii. 41.The Lord, by the same Right whereby he reserved the First-born of all Israel to himself, chose the Tribe of Levi for his own Service. This Tribe was given him as it were in Exchange, and as a Compensation for the First-born of all the other Tribes; and among Lev. vi. 10, 12, 13.the Levites, he chose the Family of Aaron to exercise the Office of the Priesthood. The other Branches of this Tribe were subordinate to the Priests, and imployed according as they were wanted by them in the Exercise of their Ministry. Wherefore the Priests served immediately at the Altar, in the Holy and the Sanctuary: They were to keep up the perpetual Fire upon the Altar of Burnt-Offerings; and the Office of the Levites was to guard the Doors of the Temple, to play upon Instruments, to flea the Victims, to prepare and bring Wood to the Altar.

The High Priest had the particular Privilege of entring into the Sanctuary, which was allowed to no other. He never went into it but one Day in the Year, which was that of Lev. xvi. Deut. xvii. 12, 13.the solemn Expiation. By Virtue of his Office he was chief Judge, and Arbitrator of all Things relating to the Worship of God and Religion. He was to spring from a Woman of his own Tribe and Family, married by his Father while she was in the State of her Virginity. Lev. xxi. 13.He was to be free from those bodily Defects which excluded Persons from the Dignity of High Priest. God was pleased to Lev. xxi. 17, 18.annex the Oracle of Truth to his Person; and when the High Priest was cloathed in the Ornaments belonging to his Dignity, he gave Answers in God’s Name, by Means of the Urim and Thummim, which were in his 1 Sam. xxiii. 9. and xxx. 7. Lev. xxi. 10, 11, 12.Pectoral. He was forbidden to mourn for the Dead, without an Exception even of his own Father. He never went into any Place where there was a dead Person, for fear of contracting some Pollution. The inferior Priests Lev. x. 6. and xxi. 2, 3, 4.might be present at the Funerals of their Fathers or Mothers, their Children or their Brothers, but not of other Persons, not even of the Prince of their People. As for the Levites, they are not distinguished from other Israelites with Respect to Funerals. The Priests lived in a State of Continency all the Time they were employed in the Service of the Temple. They then abstained from Wine; and all Pollutions. They were barefoot in the Temple, they lay there, they eat there, and did not wear their Formalities out of it. The Habit of common Priests and Levites was a Linnen Tunick, which reached as low as their Feet, and a Linnen Lev. x. 9. Vide dicta Ad. Exod. xl. 29, 30. Exod. xxviii. 40, 42.Bonnet with which they covered their Heads. They wore no Hair or Beard upon the upper Lip. Their Girdle and their Drawers were, as well as the rest, of Linnen.

The High Priest’s Habit was more magnificent. He had upon his Loins a pair of Drawers made of fine Linnen, and upon his Flesh a Linnen Tunick of a particular Texture: Over the Tunick he wore a long Robe of azure Colour; it was probably without Sleeves, and all smooth. At the Bottom was a Border of gold Bells, and Pomegranates wrought with Threads of diverse Colours; disposed near one another, first a Pomegranate, then a Bell, and so on. This Robe was tied about with a Girdle of different Colours, wrought artfully by the Embroiderer. This the Scripture calls Ephod. This Ephod consisted of two Ribbons of some precious Substance, and curious Workmanship, which descended from above the Shoulders before and behind, and meeting before upon the Stomach, served as a Girdle to the Robe we have been speaking of. The Ephod was adorned upon the Shoulders with two precious Stones, on each whereof were graven the Names of six Tribes of the Israelites: And upon the Breast, where the two Ribbons cross one another, was the Rational, which was a square Piece, six Inches large, on which twelve precious Stones were fastened, upon each whereof was written the Name of the twelve Sons of Israel, according to the Order of their Birth.

The Priests could not marry a Woman of a wicked Life, nor a Prostitute, nor a Woman divorced by another Man. If a Priest’s Daughter was guilty of Incontinency, she was burnt alive, because she violated the Name of her Father. The Priests were not permitted to offer Incense with strange Fire. We know what it cost Nadab and Abibu for attempting it. In all Sacrifices the Priests made Use of Salt, but never offered any Oil or Leaven Lev. xxi. 8. V. 9. Lev. x. 1, 2. Lev. ii. 13. and Num. xv. Lev. ii. 11. Lev. xxiv. 5, &c. Matth. xii. 4. Ex. xxix. 38. Numb. xxviii. 3, 4. Lev. xxi. 17, 18. Lev. xxii. 18, 19, 20.with them; They were the Persons who furnished Materials for the Shew-Bread, which they served every Sabbath Day upon the golden Table in the Holy; they kneaded and baked it themselves, and eat the old, when they placed new in the Room of it: It was at their Expence likewise that the perpetual Burnt-offering was offered Morning and Evening, and the Libations which accompanied it. Many Defects likewise are enumerated, which excluded from the Priesthood, and many Defects in the several Victims, which rendered them impure and unfit for Sacrifices. They may be all seen in our Comment.

God assigned no Inheritances in Estate and Numb. xviii. 20, 21.Lands to the Priests and Levites, but provided for their Subsistence by Tythes, First-Fruits, Offerings, and Parts of the several Victims mentioned by us, which were given to them. These they had in Lieu of Land, and with them were very much at their Ease. He provided also for their Dwelling, by assigning eight and forty Cities for their Habitation. They possessed within the Precincts of these Cities, not above the Length of a Thousand Cubits beyond the Numb. xxxv. 23.Walls. The Houses in these Cities, which belonged to the Levites were enjoyed in the same Manner as the Lands of the Israelites: They might be redeemed for ever, and in the Jubilee Year they returned to their first Owners, unless they were redeemed before. Of the eight and forty Cities belonging to the Levites, six were appointed for Sanctuaries to those who had committed any involuntary Numb. xxxv. 6.Murder. The Priests had thirteen for their Share, all the rest were the Levites. Joshua xx. 7, 8. Josh. xxi. 19, &c.God ordained also, that in all the Cities some Part of the Paste which was kneaded should be presented to the Levites. The Learned fixed this Portion to more than the fortieth, and less than the sixtieth Part of the Lump which was baked. Moreover, as often as any Beasts were killed, a Present was made to them of the Shoulder, the Maw and the two Deut. xviii. 3.Cheeks. They had likewise Part of the Wool when the Sheep were sheered. And in Ib. V. 4.military Expeditions they had always a good Share of the Spoil given them, though they were not in the Battle. There were generally Numb. xxix. 30.some Priests in the Armies of the Hebrews. Their Office was to sound the Trumpets, and Numb. x. 8, 9.to pronounce these Words at the Head of the Army. Hear, O Israel, you approach this Deut. xx. 3, 4.Day unto Battle against your Enemies; fear not, for the Lord your God is he that goeth with you, to fight for you against your Enemies, to save you. When the Ark of the Covenant was brought to the Camp, the Priests were charged with it, and guarded it. Sam. iv. 4. and xiv. 18. and 2 Sam. xv. 24, 25.The High Priest was often in it with his sacred Ornaments, that he might consult the Lord concerning what was to be done.

When private Persons made any Entertainments in the Temple, or in particular Cities, the Levites were generally invited. The Lord in twenty Places charges the Hebrews not to forget the Levites in their Rejoycings. Remember, says he to them, the Levite who is within the Circuit of your Cities, and consider that he has no Inheritance Deut. xii. 18, 19, & passim. Lev. xxviii. 30, 31, 32.in the Land. They received the Tythe, not only of Grains and Fruits in the Countrey, but likewise of Cattle. They had the Tythe of the Herd, or of the Flock as it came, be it what it would, without making any Choice. If any one had a Mind to redeem his Tythe, he added the fifth Part V. 31.above the Value of the Thing. 38

Numb. xviii. 26.After that the Levites had received all the First-Fruits and Tenths, they separated the tenth Part of them for the Priests. The Priests and Levites served quarterly in the Temple. They entred into the sacred Ministry at the Age of five and twenty or thirty, and were excused from performing the Offices of it at fifty. In David’s Time their Order was changed, and they were received into the Temple at the Age of twenty. If a Levite thought fit to quit the Place of his Abode, with a Design of giving himself up Numb. viii. 24. and Num. iv. 3. Chr. xxiii. 24. and Chr. xxvi. 17. and Ezra iii. 8. Deut. xviii. 6. Deut. xvii. 10, 11. Deut. xvii. 18. Deut. xvii. 8, 9, 10.for ever to the Service of God’s House, he was received there, and was supported out of the Revenues, and common and daily Offerings.

One of the principal Functions of the Priests and Levites, next to the Sacrifices and Service of the Temple, was the Instruction of the People. They were obliged to read the Law solemnly in an Assembly of the whole Nation, upon the great Day of Expiation. The King, upon his Elevation to the Throne, received the Volume of the Law from their Hands, which he caused to be transcribed for his Use. In the Decision of perplexed and difficult Affairs Recourse was had to the Priests; it was ordained upon these Occasions, that the High Priest should Deut. xvii. 12, 13. Lev. xiii. xxiv. Numb. xxi. 5. Numb. v. 14, 15.be obeyed on Pain of Death. The Distinction of different Sorts of Leprosies, the Expiation of any Murder, the Author whereof was not discovered, the Causes of Divorce, the Waters of Jealousy, every Thing relating to the Vows of the Nazarites came under their Cognizance. They blessed the People solemnly, and called upon the Name of the Numb. vi. 20, 21. Numb. vi. 23, 24, 25.Lord for them: The Hebrews had several Sorts of Sacrifices. The Burnt-Offering was the most perfect: In this they burnt the whole Flesh of the Animal, after they had first taken out the Entrails and flead it. The Peace-Offering was either to obtain Favours, or to be thankful for those which were received, or it was made only to acknowledge the Greatness and supreme Dominion of God. The Blood and Fat of the Peace-Offering was offered to God; the Priest had the Shoulder and the Breast, and the Remainder of the Victim was left to the particular Person whom it belonged to. In the Sin -Offering there was nothing left for him who provided the Sacrifice. The Fat which covers the Intestins, the Caul over the Liver, and the Kidneys were burnt, and the Blood was poured out at the Foot of the Altar; the rest belonged to the Priest. None but Bulls, Cows, Calves, Rams, Ewes, Weathers, He and She-Goats, and Kids were offered. There were likewise certain expiatory Sacrifices wherein Birds were offered. Upon these Occasions one was generally killed, and the other suffered to fly away. Sacrifices of this Kind took Place only in the Expiation of a Lev. xiv. 4.Leper, who was healed, and in that of a

Man; Man, who having sworn rashly to do something, Lev. v. 6, 7.had forgot to do it. It would be almost impossible to relate here particularly all the Ceremonies attending the Sacrifices. The first Chapters of Leviticus may be consulted in this Matter. The three principal Festivals of the Israelites, and at which all the Males were to be present, from twelve Years of Age and upwards, were those of the Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles or Tents. The first was instituted in Memory of the destroying Angel’s Passage who killed the First-born of the Egyptians, and spared those of the Hebrews, the Night in which they departed out of Egypt. That which distinguished this Festival, was a Sheaf of the first Barley, which was presented with Ceremony in the Temple, as the First-Fruits of the Barley-Harvest, which was to begin immediately after the Feast. There was none but unleavened Bread used during the seven Days Solemnity; and in the Evening on which the Feast began, there was a Lamb or Kid of a Year old eaten with bitter Herbs in every Family, or Assembly of ten or fifteen Persons. This was a Sacrifice of a particular Form. The Blood of it only was presented at the Foot of the Altar. It was to be eat roasted, and no otherwise dressed, it was not lawful to break the Bones, in Order to extract the Marrow. It was at the same Time a Sacrifice of Thanksgiving, and recalled to the Remembrance of the Hebrews their Deliverance out of Egypt. There were several Sacrifices peculiar to this Feast which we do not here particularly mention. The Passover with all its Formalities was ordained to be observed, Numb. xxviii. 19, &c.under the Penalty of being extirpated from among his People. If any particular Persons were not in a Condition to celebrate the Passover upon the fourteenth Day of the first Numb. ix. 13. Ex. xii, 19.Month, by Reason of some Uncleanness, which might hinder them; or because of Absence, and their being upon a Journey, they were permitted to keep it on the fourteenth Day of the second Month; which however was no Obstruction to their abstaining from Numb. ix. 6.leavened Bread, at the Time of the first Passover, in what Place soever, and what Condition soever they were in.

The Pentecost was celebrated fifty Days Ex. xxiii. 16. and xxiv. 22. Lev. xxiii. 17.after the Feast of Passover. In this Solemnity they offered two Loaves of new Wheat as the First-Fruits of the Harvest, which begun after this Ceremony. It was instituted in Order to preserve the Memory of the solemn Covenant, which the Lord had made with Israel at Sinai, when he gave them his Law. The extraordinary Sacrifices which were then Vide Numb. xxviii. 26, 27. collatum cum xxviii. 12, 20. Numb. xxix. 12.offered, were the same as those which were offered in the Passover.

The third solemn Feast of the Hebrews was that of Tents or Tabernacles, which was celebrated at the End of the civil Year Numb. xxix. 7.with Thanksgivings for all the Favours obtained from God, during the whole Course of the Year, and particularly in the Times of Ex. xxiii. 16.Harvest and Vintage. All the People then lodged under Tents made of Branches of Trees, in Memory of their Journey through the Wilderness, where their Forefathers spent Lev. xxiii. 40, 43. Lev. xxiii. 10. V. 8, 9, &c. Lev. xxiii. 37. and Numb. xxix. 13, 14, &c. Numb. xxviii. 11. Lev. xvi. 6, 7. Numb. xxix. 1. &c.forty Years, without having any other Habitations than Tents. There were particular Sacrifices for this Feast which lasted seven Days.

The tenth Day of the seventh Month in the sacred Year, which was the first of the civil Year, was a solemn Day, spent in Fasting, Repentance, and Mortification. It was appointed upon Pain of Death, for every one to afflict his Soul with Fasting on this Day. An Atonement was made for all the People with particular Sacrifices; among the rest, of two Goats, one whereof was set at Liberty, and called Azazel, and the other was sacrificed for the Sins of the People, and burnt without the Camp. Upon this Day the High Priest entred into the Sanctuary, to purify it with the Blood of a young Bullock which he had sacrificed, and afterwards with that of a Goat offered up for the Sins of the People. Some believed, that Numb. xxix. 16.on the same Day the red Heifer was sacrificed, in Order to save the Ashes of it, which were made Use of in purifying those who were polluted by Funerals.

Every first Day of the Month was a Feast Day; but they were not obliged to rest upon those Days. Some particular Sacrifices were then offered, and then Festivals were begun with the Sound of Trumpets. The first Day of the first Month in the civil Year, which was the seventh of their Ecclesiastical Year, is called in particular the Feast of Trumpets; because the Beginning of the Year was then published by Sound of Trumpets, with a particular Solemnity.

The Sabbath Day is the most antient of all the Festivals that we know of in Scripture; God sanctified this Day after the Work of the Gen. ii. 2.Creation. Moses published the Command relating to it, soon after the Departure out of Egypt, before the Hebrews came to Sinai. Ex. xvi. 23, 29.God enjoins Rest upon this Day, upon Pain of Death: He does not allow even of the kindling Ex. xxxi. 15. Numb. xv. 32. Ex. xxxv. 3.a Fire, or dressing any Thing to eat; and he extends the Command of Rest to the very Beasts and Slaves. He requires this whole Day to be employed in his Service, in praising him, and studying his holy Law. There were particular Sacrifices for the Sabbath, as well as for Ex. xx. 6. Numb. xxviii. 9.other Feasts.

Besides all these Feasts, which were observed in the Course of the Year, and lasted at most but seven Days, there were others of a much longer Duration, which were celebrated at the End of a certain Number of Years.

The first of these Feasts was the Sabbatical cal Year, wherein it was forbidden to cultivate the Earth, and all were enjoined to leave the Fruits of the Field to the Stranger, Ex. xxiii. 10, 11. and Lev. xxv. 1, 2, &c. Deut. xv. 2. Ex. xxi. 2. Deut. xxxi. 10, 11.the Poor, the Orphan, and wild Beasts; to set the Hebrew Slaves at Liberty, to remit all Debts, to read the Law in a solemn Manner. This Law seemed to be against good Policy; but God had superior Views in it. He intended hereby to preserve the Equality of Riches and Conditions among the Hebrews, to prevent the Oppression of the Weak, to keep up the Memory of the Creation of the World, which began to be blotted out of the Minds of Men, to make his People sensible of their absolute Dependance upon God. With the same Design he ordained every fiftieth, or rather every forty ninth Year, which is named the Jubilee Year, the Privileges Lev. v, viii, &c.whereof were still greater than those of the Sabbatical Year. In the Jubilee Year, not only the Earth was suffered to rest, and no Cultivation of it allowed, Slaves were set at Liberty, and Debts forgiven; but likewise all Lands and Inheritances returned to the respective Tribe, Family and Property of those who were obliged to alienate them. This Year began about the Month of September, and ended in the same. It was proclaimed by Sound of Trumpets in a very solemn Manner. God thereby made it appear, that he was the absolute Lord of the Soil, and of the whole Countrey, of the Persons and Liberties of his People. And that he might not put their Confidence to too great Trials, by forbidding them to cultivate the Earth for the whole Year, and commanding every Thing which it produced of itself to be common to all, even to Beasts, he engages to bless every Ibid. V. 21.sixth, and forty eighth Year, in so remarkable a Manner, that it should suffice for three Years Provisions.

The Rules prescribed by Moses to the King, whom the Israelites might at any Time choose, are different from those which Deut. lvii. 14. 20. 1 Sam. viii. 11.Samuel calls the King’s Right. The King, according to Moses, was to be elected by the People, as the Lord should appoint; he was to be chosen out of the Number of his Brethren, not from among Strangers. The Prince was forbid to multiply the Number of his Horses, and oblige the People to return into Egypt to buy any there, to have too many Wives who might seduce his Heart, and have too great an Ascendant over him, to heap up too much Gold and Silver, and to exalt himself with Pride above his Brethren. Lastly, God commands him to take a Copy of the Law, to read it every Day of his Life, and not to depart from it, either to the right Hand, or the left. Samuel speaking of the King’s Right, tells the Israelites. “ The King whom you shall “ choose, will take your Sons, and appoint “ them for himself, for his Chariots, and “ to be his Horsemen, and some shall run “ before his Chariots. And he will appoint “ him Captains over Thousands, and Captains over Fifties, and will set them to “ ear his Ground, and to reap his Harvest, “ and to make his Instruments of War, and “ Instruments of his Chariots. And he will “ take your Daughters to be Confectioners, “ and to be Cooks and Bakers. And he will “ take your Fields, and your Vineyards, “ and your Olive-yards, even the best of “ them, and give them to his Servants. “ And he will take the Tenth of your Seed, “ and of your Vineyards and give to his Officers, and to his Servants. And he will “ take your Men Servants and your Maid “ Servants, and your goodliest young Men “ and your Asses, and put them to his “ Work. He will take the Tenth of your “ Sheep, and ye shall be his Servants.”

War was the principal Duty of the King of Israel. There was a great Difference between the Wars commanded against the Canaanites, and those undertaken to make Conquests, or for other Reasons of State against foreign Countries. They first made Offers of Peace to those whom they intended to attack; just and equitable Conditions were proposed to them, according to the Nature of Affairs and Circumstances: If they refused these Conditions, they made War upon them: If they besieged a City, when the Siege was long, and it was necessary to encompass it with Trenches, and take it with the Help of Towers and Terrasses raised against the Walls, as was then the Custom, it was forbidden to cut down Fruit Trees, and to ravage the Countrey, in Order V. 19, 20.to make these Machines and Terrasses. If the City was taken by Assault, all the Men were put to the Sword, and the Women and Children, Beasts and Moveables were reserved; they belonged all to the Conquerors, and were divided among the whole Army. But if it were a City of the Canaanites, every living Thing was generally put to Death, Men, Women, and Children.

If they were to fight a set Battle, before the Combat, a Priest at the Head of the Army encouraged those who were to engage, by promising them God’s Assistance. Afterwards Deut. xx. 2.the General and Officers went about, proclaiming at the Head of each Troop, that they who had built a new House, or planted a new Vineyard, or lately married a Wife, Deut. xxiv. 5.should return home, lest if they died in the War another should enjoy the Fruit of their Labours, or take the Wife, whom they had married. After these Declarations published at the Head of every Troop, Proclamation was made to the whole Army, that if any one wanted Courage, and feared Danger, he might return, lest he should spread the Terror which he was seized with among his Brethren.

The Spoil taken by the Enemy was divided equally by the General among all the Soldiers, those who were, as well as those who were not in the Battle, but remained as a Guard to the Camp, and had the Care of 1 Sam. xxx. 24.the Booty, when taken. Moses resolved upon making a Partition of the Spoil taken from the Midianites among the Soldiers, who were in the Action, and all the People, who were then in the Plains of Moab; because at that Time all Israel was looked upon as one Army only: The Spoil was purified before it was brought to the Camp. This was performed after the following Manner. Metals, and every Thing that could resist Fire passed through the Flames. Habits, and other Things, which could not be exposed to the Flame, were purified with the Water of Atonement. The Women, who were at any Time taken in Wars made against the Canaanites, became Slaves to the Conqueror. If a Soldier had a Mind to marry one of his Captives, he carried her home to his own House, she cut her Hair, and pared her Nails, and quitted the Cloaths she wore when she was taken, and continued a whole Month in Mourning, lamenting the Loss of her Father and Mother, after which the Israelite might marry her. But if he afterwards grew weary of her, he was obliged to send her away free without selling her, or detaining her forcibly as a Slave.

The God of Israel and his Priests had their Share in the Spoils taken from the Enemy. In the War against the Midianites, God ordained that one Animal in five Hundred, both Men and Beasts taken in the Party which engaged, should be set apart and given to the Priests; and that besides this, out of that Part of the Spoil which was given to all the People, the fiftieth of all Animals should be chosen for the Levites. The General had likewise his Share distinct, as we see in the Instance of David and Gideon. In the same War with the Midianites lately mentioned, 1 Sam. xxx. Judg. viii. 24.the Generals of the Israelites made a Present to the Lord of the Bracelets and Gold Rings, which they had taken, with an Intention probably to acknowledge him as the Head and Conductor of this Enterprize.

Numb. xxxi. 49, 50.Great Order and Discipline was observed in the Camp of Israel: We see in what Manner the Tribes were disposed about the Tabernacle in the Wilderness, and the Order Numb. ii.which was observed in their Marches. They were particularly careful to keep themselves pure: Women were not allowed to be then in Expeditions, and even they to whom any Thing happened in their Sleep, were obliged to depart out of the Camp, and did not return till Evening, after they were purified and had washed themselves and their Deut. xxiii. 10, 11, &c.Cloaths. Every Soldier carried a Stake at his Girdle, to dig a Hole with in the Earth, when he went out of the Camp Ibid. v. 13, 14.for his natural Occasions. After the Battle, the Soldiers did not enter again into the Camp till seven Days were passed, because of the Pollutions contracted by touching the Numb. xxx. 19, 20, 24.Dead. They purified themselves, and washed their Bodies and their Cloaths, before they enter’d it again. This was practised in the War against the Midianites, and probably upon all the like Occasions. But when the whole Army had been engaged, this Precept could not be observed, since they were all thought impure, and the clean were not to be distinguished from the unclean.

We are not perfectly acquainted with the Polity of the Hebrews; we have discoursed in a particular Dissertation concerning the Manner of their administring Justice, and have mentioned which were their principal Tribunals. The King and the High Priest were the two first Judges of the Nation. Give us a King to judge us, said the Israelites to Samuel. The High Priest is appointed by Moses to be Judge in the last Resort of all the most difficult Affairs. Besides this, there were Judges in all the Cities, or in all the Gates, according to the Expression of Scripture; because Justice was administred at the City Gates. Moses requires Ex. xxii. 28.great Respect to be paid to Judges and Magistrates. You shall not speak Evil of the Gods, says the Scripture⁴, and you shall do no Violence to the Prince of the People. Princes, Judges and Magistrates were called Elohim, a Name given sometimes to God. Judges were looked upon as God’s Vicegerents, with the Lord seated in the midst of them.

It was ordained that Judges should be uncorrupt, and receive no Presents, which are sufficient to bribe the most Upright, and to Ex. xxiii. 8.pervert the best Men. That they should not follow a Multitude to do Evil. That they Ex. xxiii. 2, 3, 7, 9.should not acquiesce in the Opinion of the Majority to do an Act of Injustice. That Compassion for the Poor should not hinder them from acquitting themselves of their Duty. That they should not wrong the Innocent, nor the Stranger. That they should judge without Respect to Persons. That neither Fear of the Rich, nor Compassion for the Lev. xix. 15. Vide Deut. xvi. 18,19,20.Poor, should affect them, when they were to pronounce an equitable Judgment. That the Father should not be punished for the Son, nor the Son for the Father. That in inflicting Deut. xxiv. 16.Punishments they should not proceed with the utmost Rigour. That the Bodies of Persons executed should not be left upon the Gibbet after Sun-set. That they who were condemned to be scourged or beaten, should not receive above forty Blows. That false Witnesses and Slanderers should be punished with Severity. That they should undergo the Punishment of that Crime Deut. xix. 16, 17. Deut. xix. 18, 19. Vide etiam Levit. xix. 16.which they imputed to their Brethren. That they should be treated without Mercy, Life for Life, Tooth for Tooth, Eye for Eye. That no one should be condemned upon the Testimony of a single Evidence: That two or three Witnesses should always be required before they proceeded to give Sentence against the Person accused.

Till the Time of the Law, Fathers and Mothers were the sole Judges of their Children. Moses limits this Authority, and transfers it to Judges; but he enjoins the latter to put to Death those Children, who should give injurious Language to their Fathers and Mothers, should strike them, should be rebellious, disobedient and debauched. Lev. xx. 19. Ex. xxi. 15.They were put to Death upon the bare Complaints of their Parents. The Law has made no Provision against Parricides, as if that had been thought to be a Crime impossible. Fathers are forbidden to make their Children pass through the Fire in Honour of the false God Moloch. Children are ordered to shew a perfect Submission to those who gave them Life. In Case of extreme Ex. x. 12.Necessity, a Father may sell his Children for Slaves. When he sold his Daughter, it was always with a Presumption that she would be his or his Son’s Wife who bought her. If See Ex. xxi. 7, 8, 9.this did not happen, the Master could not keep her, merely as a Slave: If he did not like her, he was to set her at Liberty. In general, Fathers commonly sold their Daughters to those who married them; marrying and buying a Woman was the same Thing.

Voluntary Murder was punished with Ex. xx. 13. xi. 12, 13. Ex. xx. 14.Death: But for casual and involuntary Murder, the Law appointed Cities of Refuge, whither they, who had fallen under this Misfortune, might retire. There were three of these Cities of Refuge on this, and three on the other Side of Jordan. He who fled thither gave immediately an Account of what had happened to the Judges of the Numb. xxxv. 23, 24. Deut. xix. 1, 2, &c. Ibid. v. 15. Ibid. v. 9. Ibid. v. 31.City, whither he retreated: Afterwards, if the Relations of the deceased Person required it, he was sent back under a Guard to the Place where the Affair happened, and if he were found guilty, and the Murder was declared voluntary, he was delivered to the deceased’s Relations, in Order to be punished; if not, he was sent back again to the City of Refuge, where he continued, without going out of it, till the Death of the High Priest. If he were found out of the City by any of the dead Person’s Relations, they might kill him with Impunity. These Laws are in Favour of the Israelite and Stranger. A voluntary Murderer was put to Death without Remission: The Relation of the deceased might kill him himself with Impunity, wheresoever he found him. No Money was allowed to be received in Order to the sparing of his Life: He was to be taken by Force even from the Altar, if he had fled thither for Refuge.

If two Men quarrelled, and one wounded his Companion, so that he was obliged to keep his Bed, and he walked afterwards with a Stick, he who struck him, was to be cleared upon paying the Physicians, and giving the wounded Person Satisfaction for Ex. xxi. 19, 20. Ex. xxi. 26.his Loss of Time. He who killed his Slave was to be punished as a Murderer: But if he only wounded him, and the Slave lived two or three Days after it, the Master was not punishable, since the Slave was his, and if he lost him, he lost his Money. If in a Quarrel between two Persons, a Woman with Child should happen to be going across, and be wounded, so that she miscarried, though she did not dye; he who caused this Accident was to be fined at the Discretion of the Husband, and of Arbitrators appointed for this Purpose. But if the Mother died, the Murderer was to give Life for Life, Eye for Eye, Tooth for Tooth. If a Master beat out an Eye or Tooth of his Man Servant, or his Maid Servant, he was obliged, in the Way of Reparation, to set them at Liberty. If a Woman, while her Husband was quarrelling with another Man, laid her Hands upon her Husband’s Adversary, in that Part, which Modesty obliges to conceal, she was Ex. xxi. 28, 29, &c. Lev. xviii. 6, 22, and xx. 11, 17. Deut. xxi. 18, 19. Lev. xviii. 21. and xx. 13. Deut. xviii. 10. Ex. xxi. 28. Lev. xx. 10. Deut. v. 18. and xxii. 21, 22, 23, 24.to have her Hands cut off.

If an Ox kill a Man or Woman with his Horns, he shall be stoned, and his Flesh shall not be eaten. If an Ox had gored any one before with his Horns, and the Owner of him upon Notice did not shut him up, and this Ox kill either Man or Woman, the Owner and the Ox shall both be put to Death. If the Owner has a Mind to redeem his Life, he may, paying whatever shall be demanded of him. If an Ox kill a Slave of either Sex, the Owner of the Beast shall give thirty Shekels to the Master of the Slave, and the Ox shall be stoned. If one Ox kills another, the surviving one shall be killed, and the Price shall be equally divided between the Owners of both; they shall likewise divide the Flesh of the Ox which has been killed. But if the Owner of the Ox which was the Aggressor, knew that he was used to gore with his Horns, and notwithstanding did not keep him in, he was to restore Ox for Ox, and the Beast which was killed was to be his. If a Man dig a Well or a Cistern, and does not cover it, and an Ox or an Ass fall into it, the Owner of the Cistern shall pay for the drowned Ox; but the Flesh shall be his.

Adultery was punished with Death, both in Man and Woman. If a young Woman, who is promised in Marriage, is violated in the Field by any Man, the Man alone shall die; but if this happen in the City, both shall be punished with Death. The Maid has no Excuse; she might have cried out, and desired Help, when this Violence was offered.

Incest was likewise punished with Death, Ex. xxii. 19. Lev. xviii. 22. xx. 11. Lev. xix. 29. Deut. xxiii. 18. Ex. xxii. 16. Deut. xxii. 1, 18.as well as Sodomy. And abominable Crimes against Nature. Prostitution of either Sex was severely condemned in Israel; and it was very expressly forbidden to offer the Price of any immodest Intercourses at the Temple of the Lord. Whosoever dishonours a Maiden, shall be obliged to marry her; or if the Father of the Damsel is unwilling to give her, he shall then pay as much as the young Woman could expect for her Dowry. If the Affair is brought before the Judges, and it appear that there was any Violence on his Part who corrupted her, the young Man shall pay a Fine of fifty Shekels to the Damsel’s Father, shall marry her, and never have it in his Power to divorce Lev. xx. 18. cum Lev. xv. 24. Ex. xx. 17. Deut. v. 20.her. The Husband is forbidden to come near his Wife during her ordinary Indispositions, upon Pain of Death, if the Matter be brought before the Judges.

Although the Law does generally no more than regulate the outward Behaviour, and restrain Mens Hands, nevertheless it forbids evil Desires: It does not permit any one to covet anothers Wealth, his Wife, his Cattle. It tolerates Divorces, and allows the Parties separated to marry, but not to come together again, when the Woman has been once married to another Man. All Acts of Deut. xxiv. 1. Lev. xix. 19.abominable Lasciviousness contrary to Nature, are probably described after an obscure Manner in these Words. Thou shalt not let thy Cattle gender with divers Kinds: Thou shalt not sow thy Field with mingled Seed: Neither shall a Garment mingled with Linnen and Woollen come upon thee: Thou shalt not plough with the Ox and with the Ass, and in those which forbid any Man to put on Womens Cloaths, or Deut. xxii. 5.Women to dress themselves in Mens.

The Law prohibited all Sort of Theft in general; but the Manner of making Satisfaction Ex. xx. 15.for different Sorts of Theft, is very different. To steal a Man who is free, with a Design of making him a Slave, or selling him for such, was a Crime liable to capital Ex. xxi. 16. and Deut. xxiv. 8.Punishment. If a Man steal an Ox, he shall pay five Times double, and for a Sheep four Times. But if these Beasts are found alive Ex. xxii. 1, 2, 3, 4.in the Possession of the Thief, he shall only pay double for them: Any one might with Impunity kill a Night Robber, surprized in making a Hole through a Wall: But if any one were to kill him in broad Day-Light, the Murderer is to be treated according to the Rigour of the Laws against Murderers. If a Thief have not wherewithal to make Restitution, he may be sold for this Purpose. Ex. xxii. 4, 5.He who has done any Man Damage in his Field or Vineyard, shall make good the Wrong, which he has done, out of his Ex. xxii. 5, &c.own Field or Vineyard. He shall in like Manner make Satisfaction, if the Harvest, Corn in the Field, or the Sheaves in the Barn are through his Fault set on Fire. If what one has lodged in Trust with another is lost, Restitution shall be made twofold by the Trustee, if he is convicted of Fraud; if not, he shall be cleared and dismissed upon taking his Oath before the Judges. He likewise who is trusted with the keeping of any Cattle, must be answerable for them. If the Thing be lost by his Fault or Negligence, he shall restore it: If it dies in his Hands, or is taken by the Enemy, he shall be obliged to affirm upon Oath, that it is not through his Fault, and shall be discharged from making Restitution: If it be stolen, he shall restore the Value. If it be taken by wild Beasts, let some Part of it be brought to the Owner of the Beast, and he shall be discharged from making Restitution. If the Beast be only borrowed or hired, and it dies in the Presence of the Proprietor, there is nothing due for it. If the Proprietor be absent, the Borrower is to make Restitution.

The Practice of Usury among the Israelites towards one another is severely condemned by the Law; but is tolerated when practised by them with Strangers. If the Creditor had a Mind to take Pledges of his Debtor, he could not enter his House, but was to wait at the Door till the Debtor brought him something. He was not allowed to take at the same Time two Mill-Stones which were made Use of in grinding Corn, nor the Widow’s Garment. If he had taken his Neighbour’s Raiment or Covering, he was to restore it in the Evening, that his Brother might have wherewithal to cover himself in the Night. The Rich were commanded not to refuse lending to the Poor, upon Pretence that they should receive no Profit from what was so lent. The Hebrews were to assist one another so effectually, that there should be no Poor in Israel. No one was to touch the Limits of his Neighbour’s Field. In the Times of their Harvest and Vintage, they were not to be so exact in gathering up the Ears of Corn and the Grapes, as to leave none remaining for the Poor, who came after the Reapers and the Grape-gatherers. No one was to return and look after a Sheaf which he might have forgotten in the Field. In religious Feasts the Poor, the Stranger, the Widow, the Fatherless, and the Levite were not to be neglected.

Ex. xxii. Lev. xxv. 37. Deut. xxiv. 19. Deut. xxiv. 10. Deut. xxiv. 6. Ex. xxii. 26. Deut. xv. 8. Ib. xv. 4. Deut. xix. 14. Lev. xix. 9, 10. Deut.The Stranger particularly is very much recommended to the Hebrews. Oppress not a Stranger, says Moses, for ye know the Heart of a Stranger, seeing ye were Strangers in the Land of Egypt. God requires them to love and assist, not their Friends and Brethren only, but their very Enemies; that they should not thirst after Revenge, but leave it to God; that if they saw their Enemy’s Beast fallen under the Weight of his Burden, they should help to raise him up again; if they found his Cattle going astray, that they should carry them back to Ex. xxiii. 4, 5. Lev. xix. 17. Deut. xxi. 1, &c.his House. They were permitted to exercise their Hatred and Revenge only against the Canaanites; were to have no Friendship, Union, or Alliance with them; were commanded utterly to root them out, and kill them without giving any Quarter. In this Particular the Hebrews were the Assertors of God’s Honour, and the Executioners of Ex. xxii. 32, 33. and xxxiv. 12. and Numb. xxx. 51, 55 and Deut. vii. 2. 16.his Vengeance. Passengers were permitted to enter into any Man’s Vineyard, and eat Grapes in it; to pluck the Ears of Corn in the Fields, and eat them; but not to carry any away with them.

There were two Sorts of Slaves among the Deut. xxiii. 24, 25.Israelites; Hebrew Slaves, and Slaves of foreign Nations; the latter continued so for ever; but the Hebrew Slaves were set at See Ex. xxii. 1, 6. Lev. xxv. 39, 40, &c.Liberty in the Sabbatical Year. If they did not think fit to take the Advantage of the Law, they went before the Magistrates, made their Declaration, and their Master carried them back to his House, and there at the Door bored their Ears with an Awl. If the Slave entered into Bondage with his Wife and Children, he was to be set at Liberty with them: If his Master married him while he was his Slave, the Wife and Children begotten of her were to be the Masters; but the Slave, if he pleased, might leave him. If an Hebrew was constrained by Poverty to sell himself to any Stranger, who was not an Israelite, his Relations, if they were in a Condition to do so, were to redeem him; if they were not in Circumstances to do so, then any Israelite might buy his Liberty, or he himself might purchase his own Freedom: And whoever did this, was to pay his Master what he cost him, deducting for the Time of his Service, and considering how long it was till the Jubilee: For in the Jubilee Year, Strangers as well as Hebrews, were to set their Israelitish Slaves at Liberty, and restore all Inheritances to the lawful Owners of them: If any Slave were ill used by his Master, and so compelled to fly into the Land of the Hebrews, he was not to be delivered to his Master, but was to be permitted to make Choice of what Town he pleased for his Deut. xxiii. 15, 16.Habitation. If a Father sold his Daughter, the Purchaser or his Son might take her as a Wife of the second Rank, or Concubine, and keep her in this Quality. If they did not, they were to set her at Liberty in the Sabbatical Year, and give her, say the Rabbins, the ordinary Present of thirty Shekels. He who is her Master cannot sell her to any other Person, and she cannot prolong her Servitude beyond the Sabbatical Year. If her Master after having married her to his Son, give his said Son another Wife besides, this new Marriage shall no Way prejudice the Rights of the first Wife. Her Husband is obliged to give her Food, Lodging and Maintenance, and to perform the Duties of Marriage with her. If he fails in any one of these Conditions, she shall be released of her Servitude without giving any Thing, or waiting till the Sabbatical Year.

Ex. xxiii. 12. Lev. xxv. 7.In Order to inspire them with Humanity towards Mankind, the Law ordained, that they should exercise it even towards Brutes. He enjoins that Beasts should not be worked upon the Sabbath Day, and that in the Sabbatical Year, they should have a free Pasture every where. There seems to be something of Indulgence extended even towards wild Beasts. It forbids any to seeth a Ex. xxiii. 19. xxxiv. 26. and Deut. xiv. 21. Deut. xxii. 6. Lev. xix. 14. Lev. xxii. 21. Deut. xxv. 1. Lev. xi. 2, &c. xx. 25. Deut. xiv. 4. Lev. xix. 19, and Deut. xxii. 10.Kid in its Mother’s Milk; to take the old one in a Nest together with its Eggs, and young ones; to eat Animals, to muzzle the Ox which trampleth out the Corn, to couple together Beasts of different Species. The Prohibition against speaking Evil of a deaf Person, and putting any Thing before a blind Man to make him fall, must be supposed to be given for the same Reason.

The Israelites did not eat all Sorts of Beasts, Birds, and Fishes indifferently; many were esteemed unclean by them, and never used. Of four-footed Beasts, all those were reckoned unclean which were clovenfooted, and did not chew the Cud. They eat no Fish but what had Fins and Scales. There were likewise several Sorts of Birds and creeping Things which were prohibited. These Creatures while they were alive did not pollute those who touched them; but their Carcasses occasioned an Uncleanness which lasted till the Evening, and was purified only by the unclean Person’s washing his Body and Clothes. The Sinew belonging to the Thigh, even of Animals that are clean, was not eaten, by Reason of the Sinew of Jacob’s Thigh which the Angel Gen. xxxii. 32. Ex. xxii. 31. Lev. xvii. 15. Lev. xvii. 11, 12. Gen. xvii. 10. Deut. xii, 23, 24. Lev. vi. 25.touched; nor any Creature that died of itself, or was torn by any Beast in the Field. The Blood and Fat of Beasts were alike prohibited.

Circumcision of male Children upon the eighth Day was enjoined Abraham. All the Israelites were obliged to it under Pain of being extirpated from among their People. There were several legal Impurities, some whereof made it necessary to separate from the Use of Things holy, and others from the Conversation of Mankind. To have touched a dead Carcase, to have been in the House where it was; and to have been present at a Funeral, made People unclean for seven Days, and they were obliged upon Pain of Death to purify themselves with the Water Numb. v. 2. xxix. 11, 12, 20. Lev. xiii. 45, 46. Lev. xv. 2. Ib. xv. 19. 3of Expiation. Leprosies, Gonorrhe-as, and the common Indispositions peculiar to Women, created Uncleanness in those who were in any of these Circumstances, as long as they continued to be so indispposed; and after their Cure they offered an expia tory Sacrifice, as it were to satisfy God for such involuntary Faults, as they might have committed during their Pollution. They who came near Persons thus polluted, or touched any Thing which they had handled, or had sat on, contracted likewise an Uncleanness, which lasted for a Day only. A Woman who Ib. v. 4. 20.had lately lain in was likewise reckoned to be unclean forty Days after the Birth of a Boy, and fifty after the Birth of a Girl. During all Lev. xii. 4, 5, &c.this Time, she was not permitted to touch holy Things, nor to appear in the Court of the Temple. When this Time was expired, she came and offered a Lamb, a Turtle, or a young Pidgeon for her Expiation; and if she were Poor, two Turtles, or two young Pigeons only.

All People who had been never circumcised, were thought by the Israelites to be unclean. They made Use of the Word Uncircumcised to express something unclean. The Canaanites and Amalekites were devoted to Ex. xvii. 14. and Deut. xxv. 17.the Curse. Eunuchs, Bastards, or those born of Prostitutes, were not admitted into God’s Church till the tenth Generation; that is to Deut. xxiii. 1, 2,say, were excluded from a Participation of the Privileges belonging to Israelites. The Ammonites and Moabites were not admitted, even at the tenth Generation. They were forbidden Deut. xxiii. 1.to make Peace, and live in Friendship with these People. The Edomites and EgyptiansV. 6. might be received among the Israelites after the third Generation; the former in Consideration of Esau, Jacob’s Brother; and the latter, because the Israelites had lived among them as Strangers.

Moses forbids all Sort of Frauds and Cheats in Trade. He enjoins his People to have equal Measures for buying and selling, for receiving Lev. xix. 35.and delivering; to honour old Men, and stand in their Presence. That all the Israelites Deut. xxv. 13, 14. Lev. xix. 32.should wear Tufts at the four Corners of their Vestments, and Fringes on the Borders of their Garments; that by this they might be induced to remember the Law of the Lord. Numb. xv. 38.Girls did not inherit but when there were no Boys. Girls who were Heiresses married Husbands Deut. xxii. 12. Numb. xxvii. 5. and xxxvi. 3, 4, &c.of their own Tribe; that the Inheritances of one Tribe might not be transferred to another. If a Man died without Children, his Brothers were Heirs to his Estate; if he had no Brothers, his Uncles by the Father’s Numb. xxvii. 8, 9, 10, 11.Side succeeded to his Fortune, and if he had no such Uncles, his nearest Relations.

When a Man died without Children, his Brother was obliged to marry his Widow, and so revive the Memory of the deceased, whose Deut. xxv. 5, 6, 7.Estate he enjoyed. If he refused to do so, the Woman cited him to appear at the City Gate, took his Shoes from off his Feet, spit in his Face, and said, So shall it be done unto that Man that will not build up his Brother’s House. If a Man had entertained any Suspicion of his Wife, he might Numb. vi. 14. Deut. xxii. 14, 15.make her drink the Waters of Jealousy; and God in Condescension to the Hardness of the Jews, granted them this Trial to prevent greater Evils. He likewise tolerated the Husband to accuse his Wife, as not having discovered the Marks of Virginity in her; but if the Accusation appeared to be false, the Husband was condemned to be scourged or bastinadoed, to pay a Fine of an hundred Shekels for the Service of the Woman’s Father, and never to have Power to divorce her. No Husband, who had two Wives, could transfer the Rights of the first born, to any Child of the most beloved Wife of these two: He had no Power to deprive her Son of this Privilege, who had Deut. xxi. 15, 16.the least Share in his Affection.

The Land of Canaan was to be divided by Lot among all the Tribes as equally as was possible, with a Regard to the Number of Numb. xxxiii. 13. xxxiv. 13.those who composed each Tribe. When the Israelites built an House, they were to carry on a kind of Wall or Canon round about the Top of it, to prevent their falling and killing themselves who went upon it; this was in the Deut. xxii. 8. Lev. xxvii. 2, &c.Nature of a Platform.

There were several Sorts of Vows which the Hebrews were at Liberty to make. They might either devote themselves or any other Person to the Lord. Persons thus devoted were redeemed with a Sum of Money. A Man from twenty to sixty Years of Age paid fifty Shekels for his Redemption, and a Woman thirty. A Boy from five Years old to twenty gave twenty Shekels, and a Girl of the same Age, ten. A Man above sixty Years of Age gave fifteen Shekels, a Woman ten. The Poor according to their Abilities paid the Tax which the Priest laid upon them: A Beast fit to be sacrificed, which was devoted, was not to be redeemed, but was sacrificed. An unclean Beast was to be valued by the Priest; and if the Proprietor had a Mind to redeem it, he was to add a fifth Part above the Estimation. If an House were thus devoted, an Estimate was to be made of it, and it was to be sold for the Profit of the Priest. A Field also which was thus consecrated, was to be valued by the Priest, according to the Revenue it produced, and the Time remaining to the Jubilee. The Proprietor was at Liberty to redeem it, adding a fifth Part to the Price at which it was rated. But if the Proprietor did not redeem his Field, and it were sold to another, he who sanctified it, was not to have Possession of it any more, not even in the Jubilee Year. The First-born belonging to the Lord were not the proper Matter of a Vow.

Things and Animals devoted to the Curse, were not redeemable, but were put to Death if Animals; or if Houses or Inheritances, belonged Lev. xxvii. 28.to the Priests. Tithes of either Land or Beasts were redeemable, provided a fifth Part were added above their Value.

Every one was obliged to perform his Vows Numb. xxx. 3.punctually, and without Delay. If a young Woman, who remains still in her Father’s House, make a Vow, and her Father has had Knowledge of it, without saying any Thing about it, she shall accomplish her Vow. If on the contrary, her Father shall not be consenting to her Promise, it shall be void, and of no Effect. If a married Woman make a Vow, her Husband by giving or refusing his Consent, shall annul or ratify her Promises. There is but one Day allowed him to declare his Refusal: If he waits till the second Day before he makes known his Resolution, the Woman is obliged by her Vow. A Woman who is divorced from her Husband and a Widow, are bound to the Performance of all the Promises made by them.

The Nazarites were a Sort of People, who consecrated themselves to God, and abstained from Wine, and every Thing that might intoxicate; who during the Time of their being Nazarites, neither had their Hair cut, nor were present at any Funerals. When this Time was over, the Priests were Numb. vi. 1, 2, &c.to present them at the Door of the Tabernacle, and offer up a Lamb for a Burnt-Offering, an Ewe for a Sin-Offering, and a Ram for a Peace-Offering. When these Victims were sacrificed, the Nazarite was to have his Hair cut, and this was to be cast into the Fire upon the Altar. Afterwards the Priest was to put the Shoulder of the Ram, and the Offerings of Bread and Cake upon the Nazarite’s Hands; and the Nazarite returning them to the Priest, he was to lift them up before the Lord; and then the Nazarite might drink Wine. If during the Time of his Consecration, any Person by Chance were to dye in his Presence, he was obliged to run through all the Ceremonies again, to be performed by Nazarites, and to offer two young Pigeons for the Expiation of his Uncleanness.

The whole Land of Canaan being plunged into Idolatry at the Time when the Hebrews entred into it, God commanded them to destroy all the Marks they met with of this false Religion; their consecrated Groves, Altars, Stones, Pillars and Statues Lev. xvi. 1. and Deut. xiii. 2, 3. Ex. xx. 24, 25.erected in Honour of false Gods. He at first appointed an Altar made of Turf to be erected to his Honour at the Foot of Sinai; afterwards he caused one of Wood, covered with Copper Plates, and hollow within, to be made for the Tabernacle. The Fire was kindled upon a Grate of the same Matter, sunk in about half Way the Depth of this Altar. He forbad any to go up this Altar by Steps; Ex. xxvii. 8. Ex. xx. 26.lest the Priests as they went up should discover something indecent, and offensive to Modesty. He likewise ordained, that as soon as they should be entred into the Land of Promise, they should go to the Mountains Ebal and Gerizim. One Part of the Tribes Deut. xi. 29. and xxvii. 23. Josh. viii. 30, 33.was to be placed upon Gerizim, in Order to pronounce these Blessings upon those who should practise God’s Laws; and another Part on Mount Ebal, to pronounce Curses against those who should neglect them: There they were to erect a very large Altar plaistered over, upon which the Words of the Law were to be written. All this was executed by Joshua.

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