God “gave him,” namely Christ, “as head of the Church,” says the Apostle, for “we are all one body in Christ,” namely the Church, whose head is Christ.
Since, therefore, the head—namely the incarnate Word, the Lord Jesus Christ—has been treated as regards his conduct, most full of every perfection, his marvelous teaching and glorious miracles, his Passion, and also the account of his divinity, intimated most briefly yet most profoundly by John, let us now proceed to treat of the Church itself.
Its first leaders and pastors were the apostles. It exists as militant in the world until the end of the world, but then it will pass entirely into the Church triumphant, also in glorified bodies.
The Lord Jesus revealed to John the Church’s course through various states at diverse times until the end, but very obscurely, through imaginary visions which very few understand so as to explain them literally by prophecy or divination, as Nicholas of Lyra noted.
The most blessed John was an apostle, evangelist, and prophet: an apostle in his epistles, an evangelist in his Gospel, and a prophet in the Apocalypse. Because of his insuperable constancy in evangelizing, he was banished by the emperor Domitian to the island of Patmos. There, deprived of the fellowship of human consolation, he merited to be raised up by the consolations of a divine address.
On one Lord’s day an angel representing Christ appeared to him and revealed to him the states of the Church militant in the New Testament through the course of diverse times, in imaginary visions of diverse things which he then received from him. Concerning them he wrote the book of the Apocalypse, which is interpreted “revelation.”
In commendation of this book Jerome says that the Apocalypse has as many mysteries as words. In commendation of the volume, every praise is inferior to it.
It signifies, but most obscurely, the persecutions and afflictions which the Church will suffer from tyrants, gentile emperors, heretics, and also evil members of the faithful; the divine consolations to be received here and in the future; and the judgments and punishments of the evil. This is so that foreseen blows may strike less severely and that the faithful may be strengthened more efficaciously in adversities by hope of divine aid and of their future reward and the punishment of the evil.
It describes many mysteries under the number seven. At the beginning, after God, John sets the greeting from the seven spirits who are before the divine throne. He saw an angel representing Christ in the midst of seven golden lampstands, holding seven stars in his hand.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 169.]
He writes these things to the seven churches of Asia and to their seven angels, that is, to their bishops, one to each. Then, before the throne of the divine majesty, he was shown its fellowship: the four living creatures, the twenty-four elders, and the seven lamps, which are the seven spirits of God, as is said there.
Afterward he saw that the book which the one seated upon the throne held was closed with seven seals. The Lamb and Lion, Jesus, who was found able to open and loosen those seals, was shown to have seven horns. After the opening of the seven seals, seven angels were seen, each in turn sounding a trumpet forcefully and speaking various and diverse things. Finally, seven other angels appeared, having seven bowls full of water, which they poured upon the earth one after another. A dreadful dragon was also shown, having seven heads.
Nicholas of Lyra explains “from the seven spirits,” and so forth, as meaning the whole company of angels. The number seven is frequently used in Scripture and signifies totality. According to Gregory, this is because the whole of time runs through the seven days of the week. In the first week God made all things, resting from his work on the seventh day and sanctifying it.
As the Apostle says in Hebrews 1, “All are ministering spirits, sent to assist those who receive the inheritance of salvation.” They are all called “seven” because of seven things which God works around us.
Their first work concerns natural things, by moving or changing them. Thus the philosophers posit separate substances as the movers of the heavenly spheres. Origen explains Christ’s statement in Luke 21, “The powers of the heavens shall be moved,” as referring to angels who “will be moved,” that is, removed at the end of the world from the office of moving the heavens or planets, for then every motion of heaven will cease. According to Gregory, “powers” are also those angels through whom God works miracles in which nature is changed.
Their second work concerns infernal things, restraining them. According to Gregory and others, the office of the angels called Powers is to restrain the malice of demons, lest they harm us in body and soul as much as they would wish. We have an example of this in Tobit, in the angel Raphael, who banished the demon Asmodeus into the desert so that he might not harm Tobias and his spouse as he had harmed her seven husbands.
Their third work concerns crimes, punishing both the elect and the reprobate. Thus, having found the inhabitants of Sodom and of the other four cities obstinate in the worst crime, the angels sent fire and sulfur from the air upon them, and they were overthrown. In one night an angel killed one hundred and eighty-four thousand [read: one hundred and eighty-five thousand] men from the army of Sennacherib, who was blaspheming God. An angel likewise afflicted David, who gloried in the multitude of his subjects, wounding sixty thousand [read: seventy thousand] people from his nation with a deadly plague over three days.
Their fourth work concerns intellectual things, teaching them. All prophetic visions and revelations occur through the ministry of angels. The Apostle says in Galatians that the Mosaic Law was “ordained through angels in the hand of a mediator.” It was an angel who spoke to Moses in the person of God, saying, “Keep my laws; I am the Lord.”
The angel Gabriel revealed to Daniel both advents of Christ, determining the time of the first, as appears in Daniel 9. Gabriel announced to Zechariah the future conception of John the Baptist and to Mary the conception of Christ. An angel in dreams disclosed to Joseph Mary’s conception by the Holy Spirit, the journey of the newborn Jesus into Egypt, and his return from there. God likewise signified to his servant John through his angel the states of the Church through the succession of times, as is said here.
Their fifth work concerns voluntary things, inflaming the will. The Psalm says: “Who makes his angels spirits and his ministers a burning fire,” that is, who in their ministry to human beings makes them burn with divine love. Although an angel does not immediately move the will to good, for God alone does this, an angel nevertheless purges the imagination of evil representations by which a human being is incited toward evil and suggests good images, from which a person may desire good things.
As a figure of this, one of the seraphim—taking that name from his office, not his order—touched Isaiah’s lips with a burning coal and purged his iniquity, Isaiah 6. The mouth of the soul is the will.
Their sixth work concerns sufferings, soothing or comforting them. Hence, when Christ was in agony in prayer as his Passion approached, an angel from heaven appeared, strengthening him. When the three youths were cast into the furnace, an angel descended from heaven, consoling them and delivering them from being burned by the fire, Daniel 3. An angel appeared to Elijah while he slept, wearied by his labor and by the persecution of the impious Jezebel, and, awakening him, offered him strengthening provisions.
Their seventh work concerns things to be done, directing them. Malachi 3 says: “Behold, I send my angel, who prepares the way.” Thus the angel of the Lord who is said to have been Michael went before the people of Israel as they departed from Egypt and proceeded through the desert to the Promised Land, in the form of a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night.
Thus Raphael also guided Tobias, accompanying him throughout the journey as he went to Rages, and brought him safely home, made rich. Finally, angels direct the elect in their last moments lest they fail and accompany them into the heavenly homeland. Thus we read of Lazarus the beggar, who was carried by angels into Abraham’s bosom, and of Saint Martin, Saint Nicholas, and others.
The one whom John saw in the midst of the seven golden lampstands was “like a son of man,” namely an angel representing Christ.
The seven lampstands signify all the holy men in the Church militant, especially those governing and teaching others. They are golden through charity and are lampstands shining through teaching and the example of a right life. Christ is in their midst—that is, in the Church—protecting them.
Or the seven lampstands signify the seven states of the blessed in the Church triumphant: patriarchs, prophets, apostles, martyrs, doctors, virgins, and confessors. Christ is in their midst, seen by them all.
Seven conditions or qualities are described in this one like a son of man, and these signify seven virtues. His eighth condition signifies the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. All of these were in Christ and are in every perfect holy man, who in some manner is like the Son of Man, that is, Christ.
First, this one like a son of man is said to have been clothed with a long robe—that is, a linen garment reaching to the feet—which signifies constancy in adversities unto the end of life. Flax, by being crushed and struck many times, is brought to a white cloth so that a garment may be made; and the habit of constancy and fortitude is acquired through enduring many adversities. This garment ought to reach the feet, that is, the end of life, for the foot is the extremity of the body. The Apocalypse says: “Be faithful,” namely by fighting constantly, “unto death, and I will give you the crown of life.”
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
Second, he was girded at the breasts with a golden girdle, which signifies continence. Girding signifies the restraint of carnal delights: in food through abstinence, and in sexual matters through chastity. Both pertain to temperance.
He pointedly says that he was girded at the breasts, not at the loins. The breasts of the soul are the intellect and the will, in which there ought to be restraint of carnal delights. To be truly continent, one must abstain not only from outward, vicious carnal delights but also from inward ones, so as neither to think about nor covet unlawful things, according to the Apostle’s saying: “Let us cleanse ourselves from every defilement of flesh and spirit.” The girdle by which this girding is done is called golden because chastity ought to be preserved from the love of God.
The third condition signifies prudence concerning things to be done. It is expressed in the words: “His head and hair were white as white wool and as snow.” Grayness is shown in them, for he appeared old and gray-haired. “Prudence is in the aged and in those who have lived a long time,” says the Wise Man, for prudence is acquired from many experiences, and those require much time. The mind is the head of the soul, and its thoughts are the hairs.
The fourth condition indicates the fitting character of those to be loved when the text adds: “His eyes were like a flame of fire, and his feet like fine brass, as in a burning furnace.” Fire indicates charity, according to the saying of our Lord in Luke 12: “I came to send fire upon the earth.”
The eyes, which are members in a more eminent place, are nobler and see all things. They signify the contemplation of divine things, which is twofold: contemplation of God in himself, as the right eye, and contemplation that leads from creatures back to God, as the left eye. This contemplation of God is fiery in the elect, affective or tasting, proceeding from charity and approaching God more closely.
Just as the object of love is not only God but also one’s neighbor, so the life and conduct of a human being is not only contemplative but also active. The active life is signified by the feet, because, just as one passes over the earth upon the feet, so through the active life one is exercised concerning one’s neighbor, who is earth and dwells upon earth. The right foot is action concerning spiritual alms, and the left concerning bodily alms. Of the first it is said: “Counsel, correct,” and so forth; of the second: “Visit, give drink, give food,” and so forth.
The active life ought to be firm and shining, fervent with charity. Therefore the feet are of fine brass, a solid metal, shining in a burning furnace.
The fifth condition demonstrates an abundance of gifts, because he had seven stars in his right hand. The heavenly stars are the heavenly gifts of the Holy Spirit. These stars are others who shine by good examples, according to the saying: “The appearance of heaven,” that is, the beauty of heavenly honor, “is the glory of the stars,” that is, their radiance.
These seven stars are designated by the constellation Arcturus in heaven, which has seven stars that never set; and the gifts of the Holy Spirit never fail, even in the blessed life. They are held in the hand of action, not only in a habit of the mind, and in the right hand, that is, from the right intention of good action, according to Matthew 6: “Let your left hand not know what your right hand is doing.” That is, let the left intention of popular favor and the like not mix itself into good works. These gifts were in Christ most perfectly, as appears in Isaiah 11, and are possessed by every truly good person, although in greater and lesser degree.
The sixth condition denotes the authority and confidence of the word or teaching, because “his voice was like the voice of many waters.” Water signifies the teaching of the Scriptures, according to the saying: “He gave him the saving water of wisdom to drink.” Holy men, both in their minds and in their speech when teaching others, possess above all the teachings of the holy Scriptures, not of the gentiles. These have in themselves the great cry of divine authority. Like waters, they cleanse the stains of sins and cool the heat of labors through the hope of heavenly things which they impart. Hence the Apostle says in Romans 14 [read: Romans 15:4]: “That through the consolation of the Scriptures we may have hope.”
Since such waters are called faithful because they cannot deceive, since they proceed from God and in them an immense reward is promised to those who fight manfully, hope is generated in the minds of those who meditate upon them and hear them, strengthening them for their struggles.
The seventh condition implies a just sentence concerning those to be judged, because a sharp, two-edged sword issued from his mouth. Justice is exercised in judgment concerning distributions and exchanges, so that through a sentence each person may be allotted what is owed.
That sentence, like a sword, ought to proceed first from the mouth of the heart, which reason dictates, and afterward from the mouth of the body. This sword ought to be sharp on both sides: on the side of exchanges, so that no one is harmed in commerce and every inequity is cut away; and on the side of distributions, so that honors and benefices are given to the suitable, taken away from the evil, and punishments inflicted for crimes.
“Judge your neighbor justly,” says the Lord in the Law. Gregory says: “The highest good among human affairs is to cultivate justice and preserve to each person his rights,” Cause 12, Question 2, Cum devotissimam.
The eighth condition signifies the radiance of things to be believed: “And his face was like the sun shining in its power.” Just as the light of the sun exceeds the lights of all other things, so the light of faith exceeds all knowledge of things that can be known. “He who does not believe is in darkness,” says John. Hence the Lord Jesus said to certain people who did not possess right faith: “Yet a little while the light is among you. While you have the light, believe in the light, that you may be children of light,” namely through faith.
The face of the soul, by which it is distinguished from brute animals, is reason, which is luminous like the sun through the power of faith. The Psalm says: “In your light,” namely that of faith, “we shall see light.” This light comes to us from the sun of justice, Christ our God, the true light “which enlightens every human being coming into this world,” John 1.
Miracles were worked from this light of faith, because, as the Psalm says, “all his works are in faith”; and the final chapter of Mark says: “These signs shall follow those who believe,” and so forth. Hence the whole world was enlightened.
The seven churches of Asia to which he writes in chapters 2 and 3 signify all churches, because, as has been said, seven is a number signifying totality. In them diverse defects and vices are found, for which John reproves them, and virtuous things, for which he commends them.
Their angels are the prelates of those churches, whom he reproved in writing. As Pope Leo says, the faults of those in lower orders are to be referred to no one more than to idle and negligent prelates, for they often nurture a great pestilence while pretending not to apply a more severe remedy, Distinction 86.
Then, in chapter 4, John wishes to describe the course of the Church from the time of the apostles until the end of the world, shown to him under certain images explained to him but not clearly expounded for us in that book. The following exposition throughout is that of Nicholas of Lyra.
First he designates the divine majesty as presiding over and governing the Church militant. Hence he says: “Immediately I was in spirit,” understanding this as an imaginary vision.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 170.]
“And behold, a throne was set in heaven.” Heaven signifies the Church, and by the throne is understood the authority and power of God governing the Church. “And one sitting upon the throne,” namely God, triune in persons but one in essence.
“And he who sat was in appearance like a stone of jasper and sardius.” Such appearances occur according to what is fitting for that which is revealed. God appeared in this way as governing the Church militant, toward which he bears himself as consoler and kindler of charity. He is therefore said here to be of the color of jasper, which is green, a color that strengthens the sight, and of sardius, which is red and, through its likeness to fire, signifies the burning of charity.
“And there was a rainbow around the throne,” by which God’s covenant with his Church is designated. The rainbow, that is, the heavenly bow, was given as a sign of the covenant between God and the earth. It was “like the appearance of an emerald.” The emerald is green and is one of the colors of the rainbow. Thus that imaginary rainbow appeared in such a way that its green color seemed more intense than the others. By this is designated the consolation of God which will be present especially in the Church’s future tribulations, because green strengthens the sight, as was said.
The majesty of God is next described from its noble fellowship when it is said: “Around the throne were twenty-four seats.” By these are designated all cathedral churches. Although they are many, they are designated under this number because of the correspondence with the Old Testament found in First Chronicles 25 [read: First Chronicles 24], where it is read that David, wishing to enlarge divine worship in the Temple, appointed twenty-four priests who were chiefs of the priests, each of whom performed the office with his own attendants in his assigned week.
“And twenty-four elders sitting upon the seats” are the bishops of the churches, in whom there ought to be maturity of age and conduct. “Clothed all around.” They were in white garments, because chastity and purity ought especially to shine in bishops. “And upon their heads were golden crowns,” because in their minds—which are called heads in relation to the lower, sensitive powers—there ought to be the splendor of wisdom signified by gold.
“And from the throne,” namely God, “proceeded lightning, voices, and thunder”: the flash of miracles, the announcement of rewards, and the terror of punishments. These were conceded by God to the prelates of the churches in the primitive Church and afterward for some time.
“And seven lamps burning before the throne of God, which are the seven spirits of God sent into all the earth.” By these are understood the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, or all the angels who are sent to perform ministries. They are burning because they illuminate and kindle people to the knowledge and love of God.
“And in the sight of the throne, as it were, a sea of glass like crystal,” namely the sacrament of baptism, which is not movable and fluid but firm and indelible with respect to the character impressed by it.
“And in the midst of the throne and around it, four living creatures,” one like a lion, another like a calf, the third like a human being, and the fourth like an eagle. According to others, the four Evangelists are designated by them. But Nicholas of Lyra says that the four patriarchal churches can better be understood by them: Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople. These are treated throughout Distinction 22. For their application, he draws upon the qualities of those animals in relation to these churches.
Those living creatures had six wings, which are the six laws: the natural law, the Mosaic, the prophetic, the evangelical, the teaching of the apostles, and the statutes of councils or of the Church. By these wings ecclesiastics ought to ascend through contemplation and descend through the edification of their neighbors.
“And they had no rest,” namely in reverence and service toward the divine majesty, for in the aforesaid churches the divine office was devoutly celebrated by night and by day. Or, if the Evangelists are understood, they are said to have no rest from divine praise, because continually through their teaching of the Gospels they arouse us to praise God, saying “Holy” three times to indicate the mystery of the Trinity. Then is added, “Lord God almighty,” because of the mystery of the unity of essence in those divine persons.
The six wings can also be called six virtuous conditions by which we fly to God: two concerning God, namely obedience and contemplation; two concerning our neighbor, benevolence and intercession; and two concerning ourselves, modesty and circumspection.
By the twenty-four elders can be understood the fathers of the Old and New Testaments: the twelve patriarchs in the Old and the twelve apostles in the New, who were in the Church militant and are now before God in the Church triumphant.
When those four living creatures gave glory and honor, and so forth, serving God and praising him together in the divine offices, those four patriarchal churches—including nevertheless the Roman Church as the head of all—and, at Constantinople, where Constantine, who exalted the Church, established the empire, the other cathedral churches follow them in the divine offices celebrated.
That they “cast their crowns before the throne” signifies that they recognize their wisdom as coming from God, saying: “You are worthy, O Lord, to receive glory,” and so forth. This is not to be understood as though God receives something new or anything increases in him from our praises and works, but as meaning that human beings are bound, because of the benefits received, to rise up to praise God.
“And because of your will all things were”: namely, they were in your disposition from eternity, as artifacts are in the artisan’s mind before he makes them. “And they were created”: namely, they were brought into effect in time because of your will, not from necessity of nature.
In chapter 5, seven persecutions of the Church under gentile emperors, extending until Constantine, are noted in the opening of the book’s seven seals. John therefore says that he saw “a book in the right hand of the one sitting upon the throne, sealed with seven seals.” The one sitting upon the throne is God, three and one. This book is divine knowledge, in which all things are written.
It should be known that two kinds of knowledge are posited in God, or one knowledge spoken of in a twofold way. The first extends to all possible things which nevertheless never were and never will be, and it is called knowledge of simple intelligence. The other extends to all things existing in actuality under any difference of past, present, or future time, and it is called knowledge of vision.
These latter things are in God’s operative power insofar as he produces them at some time. God revealed them to the man Christ. Thus this book is said to be in God’s right hand, designating his operative power, and the book is understood as God’s knowledge of the things disposed by him to be done.
It is said to be sealed with seven seals, that is, with obscurities of every kind, as some say. According to this view, a determinate number is placed for an indeterminate one: the number seven for an indeterminate multitude of obscurities. This sealing therefore signifies the closure of divine knowledge concerning the things disposed by God to be done until he reveals that they are to be done or brings them into actuality.
But according to Nicholas of Lyra it seems better to say that these seals are nothing other than the divine will, closing and opening its secret as, when, and how it pleases. Although it is one in itself, it is nevertheless called manifold as related to its various effects, according to the saying: “Great are the works of the Lord, sought out according to all his wills.”
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
The sevenfold number of seals, therefore, is the sevenfold revelation of the divine will, which was to be revealed to John distinctly in seven revelations to occur in seven times.
“And I saw a strong angel.” This seems to have been Gabriel, whose name is interpreted “fortitude of God,” saying: “Who is worthy to open the book,” that is, to manifest God’s secret, “and to loose its seals,” that is, to show seal by seal how each thing of which they speak will proceed from the divine will?
“And no one was able”—neither in heaven, as regards the angels; nor on earth, as regards human beings; nor in hell, as regards the demons, in whom natural powers and therefore acuteness of intellect remained—“to open the book,” because no one can attain God’s secrets unless God reveals them. God first revealed them to Christ as man, and Christ revealed them to John through an angel.
“And I,” says John, “wept much.” Here John’s desire to know the Church’s future course is shown. “And one of the elders said to me,” consoling him, “Do not weep.” Although some say otherwise, this elder seems better understood to have been Peter, already crowned in heaven through martyrdom.
“Behold, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the root of David, has conquered.” He is a lion in the Resurrection. Through his Passion he conquered the devil. He is the root of David, descending from him according to the flesh and producing him according to divinity as a root produces a tree. He conquered “to open the book,” that is, to manifest the course of the Church preordained by God.
“And I saw, and behold, in the midst of the throne a Lamb standing as though slain,” that is, in the midst of the churches established in his name. He is called a lamb by reason of his immolation. He is said to be standing because of his resurrection to immortal life. He is called “as though slain” because he is daily immolated in the Church in the sacrifice of the altar as regards its effect and representation.
Hence John says that the Lamb had “seven horns,” which are the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. They are called horns because through them the enemy’s power in the vices is crushed.
“And he came,” namely the Lamb, “and received the book from the right hand of the one sitting upon the throne.” This does not mean that Christ then received knowledge of the Church’s future course, because from the beginning of his conception his soul possessed knowledge of the things to be done. Rather, he then revealed to John, and through him to the universal Church—though obscurely—the knowledge concerning the aforesaid things received at the beginning of his conception.
“And when he had opened the book,” namely in order to reveal the Church’s course, “the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell upon their faces,” and so forth. That is, the four patriarchal churches and the other cathedral churches throughout the world received from this matter for venerating him. Contemplating things pertaining to the New Testament, they sang a new song and gave thanks, saying, “You are worthy,” and so forth.
The joy of those attending Christ in the Church triumphant is then set forth when John says: “And I heard the voice of many angels,” and so forth.
“And I saw when he had opened the first seal,” and so forth, in chapter 6. “I heard one of the four living creatures saying.” According to some, the four Evangelists are designated by these four living creatures saying to John, “Come and see.” But according to Nicholas of Lyra it is better said that they designate the prelates of the patriarchal churches.
Hence the first is James the Less, patriarch of Jerusalem, already triumphing in heaven through martyrdom. He says, “Come and see,” namely the course and state of the primitive Church. “And behold, a white horse.” Some explain this of the emperor Gaius, which Nicholas of Lyra rejects. According to him it is better said to designate the company of the apostles, whitened by holiness of life.
This is also because blessed James, bishop or patriarch of the Church of Jerusalem, was clothed in linen and therefore white garments. The same can probably be thought of the other apostles. Hence Muhammad calls them “whitened men.”
By the one sitting upon this horse is understood Christ, their director. “And he who sat upon it,” namely Christ, “had a bow in his hand”: the word of preaching in the hand of operation, because Jesus began to do and to teach. Likewise, the apostles preserved by example what they preached by word.
“And a crown was given to him” in his Resurrection and Ascension, “and he went forth” through his effect, visibly giving the Holy Spirit to the apostles, “conquering” his adversaries first in Judea, where many thousands of Jews were converted to the faith, as appears in the Acts of the Apostles, “that he might conquer” throughout the whole world by afterward subjecting the necks of the gentiles to the yoke of faith with miracles added. For while Peter was still living, the Church was spread as far as the ends of the earth.
“And when he had opened the second seal,” and so forth. Here the state of the Church from the time of Nero until the time of Titus is described. “I heard the second living creature,” and so forth. This was blessed Peter, the first patriarch of the Church of Antioch, who had already passed through the cross at the time of this vision. He said: “Come and see,” namely the second state of the Church.
“And another horse went forth, red.” This horse is the Roman people, which is called red in the time of Nero. It is red because much Roman blood was shed through Nero’s cruelty, for he killed even his mother, wife, brother, sister, and Seneca, his teacher of discipline, as well as the prince of the apostles and many other members of the faithful.
Or the redness is posited because Nero caused a great part of the city of Rome to be burned, and in such a fire the mingling of flame and smoke produces the appearance of redness.
“And to him who sat upon it,” namely Nero, ruling the Roman Empire, “it was given”—that is, with God permitting—“to take peace from the earth,” because the city and the empire were disturbed by his crimes, “and that human beings should kill one another.” After Nero was killed, Galba, then Otho, and afterward Vitellius usurped the Roman Empire for themselves. Hence, while they fought one another, many were killed.
“And a great sword was given to him,” namely the power to kill Christians, for he initiated the first persecution against Christians among the persecutions by emperors. Before this they had suffered persecution from the Jews.
“And when he had opened,” and so forth. Here is described the third state of the Church, which was under Titus. “I saw the third living creature,” and so forth. This was blessed Mark, the first patriarch of Alexandria, who was already martyred and in glory. “And behold, a black horse,” namely the Roman army, which is called black effectually, just as the sun is called hot because it causes heat. Under Titus the Roman army so afflicted the inhabitants of Jerusalem that they were blackened by hunger and other afflictions, as Josephus reports.
“And he who sat upon it,” namely Titus, governing that army, “had a balance in his hand,” namely divine justice, whose work he executed. It proceeded from the order of divine justice that the Roman army partly killed and partly captured the Jews, in vengeance for Christ’s death, although this was beyond the intention of Titus and his army. They fought against the Jews because of their rebellion against the empire. Therefore he is said to have held the balance in his hand but not in his mind, because he executed the order of justice although he did not intend to avenge Christ’s death.
“And I heard, as it were, a voice from the midst of the four living creatures,” that is, from the throne of God, around which the four living creatures were, to show that this, insofar as it was an evil of punishment, proceeded from divine ordinance.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 171.]
“Two pounds of wheat for one denarius,” and so forth. Hugh of Fleury says that, after Jerusalem had been captured, the Romans, wearied with much slaughter, sought a way to sell the captives, namely the Jews, as slaves. Because there were many captives and few buyers, they decreed that thirty slaves should be sold for one coin. A two-pound measure is a measure of two pounds.
“And do not harm the wine and oil,” that is, the Christians of that region, who are signified by wine and oil because of spiritual joy, fervor, and kindness toward their neighbors. They were not harmed by the army of Titus, because before the siege they had been warned to withdraw from there.
“And when he had opened the fourth seal.” Here he sets forth the fourth state of the Church under Domitian, who initiated the second persecution of the Church and did many evils to the Roman Empire. “I heard the fourth living creature,” that is, some first patriarch or bishop of Constantinople—although that city was not then called Constantinople but Byzantium—already dead and existing in glory. “Come and see,” namely the fourth state of the Church.
“And behold, a pale horse,” that is, the Roman people. Domitian sent a great part of the senators and other nobles into exile, seized their goods, and imposed accusations upon them. Because of this, those who were at Rome and elsewhere stood in great fear lest they suffer similar things from him. Fear makes the outward members pale, especially the face. Therefore the Roman Empire at that time is signified by the pale horse.
“And he who sat upon it,” namely Domitian: “Death” was his name, actively and passively. He killed many Romans and gentiles, both faithful and unfaithful, and he himself was finally killed by the Senate because of his cruelty. “And hell followed him,” because when he died he descended to Gehenna.
“And power was given to him over the four parts of the earth,” namely the four parts in which the Roman Empire was spread, “to kill with the sword,” for by his command many of the faithful were martyred throughout the parts of the world; “and with hunger,” because many, tortured in prisons, died; “and with beasts of the earth,” because many were handed over to beasts to be devoured; “and with death,” because they were tortured in many other ways.
Note that, just as in Zechariah 6 the four horses of varying colors designate four monarchies or kingdoms, so here the first of the four horses designates Christ’s kingdom and the others the kingdom of the Romans under varying governments.
“And when he had opened the fifth seal.” Here is noted the fifth state of the Church, which was under Trajan and continued until Diocletian. Trajan initiated the third persecution against the Church; Marcus Antonius the fourth; Severus the fifth; Maximianus [read: Maximinus] the sixth; Decius the seventh; Valerian the eighth; and Aurelian the ninth.
Although several emperors in between caused Christians to be killed, these are specially said to have initiated persecutions against the Church because they issued and renewed edicts against Christians.
In the times of these emperors there were neither churches nor stable public altars. Instead, in hidden places, especially in the crypts of the martyrs above their bodies buried there, a wooden altar was carried and erected for the celebration of Masses.
Therefore it is said: “I saw beneath the altar of God the souls of those who had been slain,” that is, the slain martyrs, because their bodies were there. They had been slain “because of the word of God” as regards the teachers who were martyred because they preached the word, “and because of the testimony which they held” as regards the simple people who underwent martyrdom because they refused to deny Christ and instead professed more strongly that they believed in him.
“And they cried with a loud voice.” This cry is nothing other than a certain manifestation of the tyrants’ malice against God, which merits punishment, just as the voice of Abel’s blood cried from the earth to God. “How long, O Lord, holy and true, do you not avenge our blood upon those who dwell on earth?” That is, upon the tyrants who dwell on earth as rulers.
“And white robes were given to each of them,” that is, the glory of the soul. “And it was said to them that they should rest,” namely that their bodies should rest, “yet a little while,” namely until the final judgment. This is a little time in comparison with eternity. Then they will receive the robe of the body, namely glory, and vengeance, that is, punishment against those tyrants, will be manifested, “until the number” preordained by God “should be filled,” and so forth.
“And when he had opened the sixth seal.” Here is described the state of the Church under Diocletian and Maximian, who initiated the tenth persecution against the Church. It was more atrocious than all the preceding, to such a degree that within thirty days seventeen thousand persons of both sexes are read to have been crowned with martyrdom.
First the bitterness of the persecution is set forth and afterward the sweetness of divine consolation. John therefore says that at the opening of this seal “a great earthquake was made,” because in all parts of the Roman Empire, by command of Diocletian and Maximian, judges and powerful people were moved to kill Christians.
“And the sun became black,” that is, Christ, who is the sun of justice, was blackened as regards his reputation and also in his members, because it was charged against them that they were magicians and evildoers and that Christ had taught those magical arts through the apostles. Thus, as far as lay in them, they blackened Christ.
“And the whole moon became like blood,” because the whole Church was then reddened with the blood of the martyrs. “And the stars fell from heaven,” because many who were eminent in the heaven of the Church militant inclined through fear of death to sacrifice to idols. This appears in the case of Pope Marcellinus, who offered incense to idols. It is therefore probable that many others also fell away from the faith. Marcellinus, however, led by penance, afterward underwent martyrdom for the faith of Christ.
At that time the Roman episcopate was vacant for seven years and five months because of the savagery of that persecution.
“As a fig tree casts its unripe figs when it is shaken by a great wind.” The first, immature figs of the season are called unripe figs, and they easily fall from a tree shaken by a great wind. At that time a whirlwind of tempestuous persecution blew in the Church.
“And heaven withdrew like a rolled-up book,” that is, the Church at that time, because the Christians hid themselves as much as they could, except for a few who, through fervor of spirit, exposed and offered themselves for martyrdom.
“And every mountain and the islands were moved from their places.” Christians who had fled into mountains, upon inaccessible cliffs, and into enclosed islands of the sea were sought there. These places are therefore said to have been moved because of the movement of their inhabitants, just as a city is said to be moved because its inhabitants are moved.
Since the Church had already spread throughout the whole world, those who feared that they would fail from the faith under torments during the persecution of Diocletian and Maximian sought to hide themselves in cavernous places beneath the mountains. Some also, fearing that they would be captured and tortured and would be unable to endure, desired—subject nevertheless to God’s will—to be brought to an end by a swift death.
Their desire is expressed when the text adds: “And they say to the mountains: Fall upon us.” Because when God scourges us with some tribulation he is said, by likeness to an angry human being, to be angry against us, the text therefore adds: “Hide us from the face of the one sitting upon the throne,” who is angry, namely against us.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
“For the great day of their wrath has come,” that is, the time of the great persecution permitted by God, “and who will be able to stand?” It is as though the text said: Few will remain firm in comparison with those who fall.
Or, according to others, these words can be understood to mean that the faithful of that time seek the intercessions of the saints in the heavenly homeland. The saints are called mountains and rocks because of their exaltation and firmness in good. The faithful ask them to fall upon them, that is, to cover and protect them with their prayers.
In chapter 7, after the great tribulation of persecution in the time of Diocletian and Maximian, there is set forth the sweetness of consolation subsequently given in the Church militant and triumphant in the time of Constantine the Great.
But another brief tribulation of the Church after Diocletian and Maximian, which was restrained by Constantine, is first set forth. It is noted when the text says: “And I saw another angel,” and so forth.
For an explanation, one should know what is contained in Book Nine of the Ecclesiastical History. After Diocletian and Maximian laid down the insignia of empire, two emperors, Galerius and Constantius, were appointed. Galerius appointed two Caesars, that is, assistants to himself: Severus in Italy and Maximinus in the East.
When Constantius was dying, he appointed his son Constantine the Great, whom he had begotten from Helena, as heir to his kingdom. When Constantine became emperor, he took his relative Licinius into a partnership in his empire. Although Licinius was at first peaceful toward Christians, he afterward became a persecutor. Maxentius, meanwhile, exercised tyranny at Rome, usurping the empire for himself.
There were therefore four persecutors in the four parts of the empire: Maximinus in the East, Severus in Italy, Maxentius at Rome, and Licinius at Alexandria in Egypt.
It should be noted that in this book people of the greatest power and established in dignity are frequently called angels. If they are good, they are angels of God; if evil, angels of Satan. Hence it is said above to the angel of Sardis, that is, to its president: “You have a name as though you live, and you are dead,” namely in spirit.
Therefore John says: “After this I saw four angels,” that is, the evil persecutors of the Church, “standing”—that is, ruling—“upon the four corners of the earth,” that is, the four parts of the empire, “holding the four winds of the earth, lest they should blow,” that is, hindering the teachers of the Church from preaching the word of God.
Of this blowing it is said in Song of Songs 4: “Arise, north wind, and come, south wind, and blow through my garden, and its spices shall flow.” Through the blowing of preaching, the garden of the Church is made fruitful with good works.
“Lest they should blow upon the earth, or upon the sea, or upon any tree.” Some Christians lived on land, some upon islands of the sea, and some in forests while fleeing persecution.
Next the act by which that persecution was restrained is set forth when the text adds: “And I saw another angel,” that is, the emperor Constantine, “ascending from the rising of the sun,” because by the ordinance of the sun of justice he ascended to imperial dignity, “having the sign of the living God,” that is, the sign of Christ’s cross.
As is written in Book Nine of the Ecclesiastical History, when Constantine was coming to battle against Maxentius and was anxious about the battle’s outcome, the sign of the cross was shown to him, and he was told: “In this sign you shall conquer.” Hence, secure concerning victory, he had the sign of the cross placed upon his standards, fought against Maxentius, and triumphed.
“And he cried with a loud voice to the four angels,” that is, to the four aforesaid tyrants, “to whom it was given to harm the earth and sea,” meaning that they were permitted to harm the Christians living on land and on islands of the sea. He said: “Do not harm,” and so forth. He restrained those four tyrants from persecuting Christians: two by defeating them in war, namely Maxentius and Licinius, and the others by deterring them through his command, namely Maximinus and Severus.
“Until we seal the servants of our God upon their foreheads.” Constantine, baptized by blessed Sylvester, honored and exalted the Church, and especially its priests and ministers. He conferred many privileges upon Christians, led many to baptism by his pious example, and through the ministry of priests marked Christ’s servants with his seal.
It should be known that “until” is not taken finitely here but indefinitely, as when it is said that someone “did not repent until he lived,” that is, never, because after death he could not repent. So it is in this passage. After Constantine’s sealing and restraint, those tyrants did not return to persecuting Christians but were exterminated.
“And I heard the number of those who were sealed.” Here is set forth the fruit of the restraint of that persecution, which was the multiplication of the faithful: “One hundred forty-four thousand from every tribe of the children of Israel.”
Some say that the number of converts from Judaism is set forth here, a determinate number being used for an indeterminate one, and that afterward the number of converts from gentile status is given in the words: “After this I saw a great multitude which no one could number,” and so forth.
But this does not seem right. According to the Hebrews and Latins, ten tribes were taken captive and enclosed within the Caspian Mountains, and it does not appear that members of those tribes were baptized in so great a number, although a number of twelve thousand is also posited from each of them.
It therefore seems better to say that this designates the multitude of those converted to Christ in Constantine’s time, from whatever nation they came, who through baptism attain the reality signified by the name. For “Israel” is interpreted “seeing God.” God is seen here through faith and in the future through direct vision.
Therefore the name Israel according to reality and truth passed to every people regenerated in Christ, and consequently the names of the twelve tribes passed to Christ’s faithful, especially to the twelve apostles corresponding to the twelve patriarchs of the children of Israel. Dan is not set down because the Antichrist is said to be born from him.
“After this I saw a great multitude which no one could number.” Here consolation is set forth concerning those who are in the Church triumphant. Just as after the most bitter persecution of Diocletian and Maximian consolation was given to the Church militant when peace was restored through Constantine, so in the Church triumphant there was great joy over the innumerable martyrs who suffered in every nation in the time of Diocletian and Maximian, when Christ received their souls.
The words “after this” refer not to the martyrs’ glory, as though there were joy in heaven over their crowning only after Constantine, since they were glorified immediately, but to the narration of John’s vision.
They were “standing before the throne,” namely clearly beholding God and enjoying him; “clothed in white robes,” that is, the glory of the soul; “palms in their hands,” that is, the perfect victory over temptations; “and they cried with a loud voice,” in fervent love: “Salvation belongs to God and to the Lamb,” that is, the salvation which we possess here in glory is in us from God and Christ through the merit of his Passion.
“And all the angels stood”—
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 172.]
—“before the throne,” namely prepared to execute God’s will and giving thanks for the saints’ victory. “Blessing,” that is, praise, “and glory,” that is, the spreading abroad of his name, and the things that follow are to be attributed to our God.
Nor should it be understood from these things that anything increases in God in his creatures, but only in his effects.
When one person asked who these were and from where they came, one of the elders, namely blessed Peter, answered: “These are they who came out of great tribulation,” namely through martyrdom to glory, “and washed their robes,” that is, purified their souls, “in the blood of the Lamb,” enduring death for him. Or, because they were members of Christ’s body, their blood is called the blood of the Lamb, that is, of Christ.
“And the Lamb,” that is, Christ, “will lead them to the fountains of the waters of life.” He will continue in them the glory of their souls until the other robe which they will receive, namely the glory of their bodies in the resurrection of bodies. “And he will wipe away every tear from them,” and so forth.
Constantine, however, reigned when peace was restored to the Church, in the year of the Lord 309, or thereabouts.
“And when he had opened the seventh seal.” After the persecution and struggle of the Church against tyrants, the struggle against heretics is here set forth under the opening of the seventh seal.
It should be known that this division is not exact. There were some heretics in the time of the primitive Church, as appears from the epistles of the apostles, and after Constantine the Great there were tyrants who persecuted the Church. Rather, this division is taken according to that which is principally described in the preceding and following material.
There will be heretics among Christians until the end of the world, as is shown in the parable of the good seed and the tares, Matthew 13. Therefore this part of the book extends generally until the end of the world, or the terminus of this book.
It is divided into three parts. First is described the state of the Church preceding the judgment. Second is the state of the Church accompanying the judgment, in chapter 19, where it says: “And I saw a great throne.” Third is the state following the judgment, where it says: “And I, John.”
As regards the state preceding the judgment, first is set forth the struggle between the Church and heretics properly so called, and afterward against heretics understood extensively and broadly, in chapter 12. Concerning heretics properly so called, the text first treats of heresiarchs, or inventors of heresies, and second of their supporters, in chapter 9.
John therefore continues from the preceding material, in which he had spoken of the tyrants’ persecutions against the Church and the Church’s consolation through Constantine. He sets forth a certain brief persecution which the Church suffered through the apostate emperor Julian. It lasted only a little while, namely the one and a half years in which he reigned.
Julian caused Paul and John to be killed, and many other Christians were crowned with martyrdom. He had also ordered churches to be closed, prohibiting the public celebration of divine offices. John notes this when he says: “There was silence in heaven,” that is, in the Church militant, because Julian prohibited the public celebration of the offices, “as it were for half an hour,” because this persecution lasted a short time.
Julian was killed in the war against the Persians. When he died, the Christian religion began to rejoice.
“And I saw seven angels,” and so forth. Each of these angels and their trumpet blasts will be treated below.
“And another angel,” and so forth. Here a connection is made with the deliverance accomplished through Constantine. Not long after Julian’s death, Damasus was created pope and enlarged divine worship in the churches. He ordained that the Psalms should be sung in church by day and night and that at the end of a Psalm “Glory be to the Father,” and so forth, should be said.
Damasus himself is understood here to be “another angel,” another than those seven who will be explained, that is, contrary to them because he was holy. “He came and stood before the altar,” because he presided over the Roman Church, “having a golden censer,” that is, a devout heart, “and much incense was given to him.” These are the prayers of the faithful, so that he might place them “upon the golden altar,” that is, offer them to Christ, who is the golden altar full of charity “before the throne of God.” For it pertains to the supreme pontiff as head of the Church to refer the devotion of the people to God.
“And the angel took the censer and filled it with fire from the altar,” that is, Damasus received a house [read: a gift] from God in his heart of fervent charity, “and cast it upon the earth,” because through his ordinance and example he led those dwelling on earth to the fervor of devotion and charity.
“And from it were made thunders” of holy preaching, “voices” of divine praise, “lightning” and flashes of miracles, for at that time certain prelates in the Church became illustrious through miracles, “and an earthquake,” because through these things many earthly people were moved to work well.
“And the seven angels.” Here a connection is made with the preceding, and John treats of heresiarchs. Although there were many heresiarchs at diverse times, he appears here to make express mention of four, against whom the four general and more principal councils were assembled.
The first of these four was therefore Arius, a priest who, raised up by pride, asserted against the article of the Holy Trinity that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were distinct in essences just as they were distinct in persons. Hence he claimed that the Father alone was God essentially, but the Son and the Holy Spirit by participation.
Against him, 318 fathers, bishops assembled in the Council of Nicaea, condemned him and his perverse dogma. Nevertheless, several of his disciples did not desist from the error but renewed it. Several princes and emperors infected with such error initiated persecution against Catholics.
Of Arius, therefore, it is said: “And the first angel,” that is, Arius. As was said above, evil human beings as well as good ones are called angels here. “He sounded the trumpet” with a great roar and pride by publishing the aforesaid heresy.
“And hail was made,” that is, a great tempest, because through this human beings in the Church were divided among themselves. Hence it is said in the Ecclesiastical History: “At that time the face of the Church was made exceedingly foul, so that one member of the faithful drove away another, and each claimed to be of the Church.”
“And fire mingled with blood,” that is, the fire of rivalry from which the shedding of blood followed, especially in the time of the emperor Valens, who, having fallen into the Arian heresy, persecuted Catholics by killing them in diverse ways, and also earlier in the time of Constantius, son of Constantine the Great.
“And the third part of the earth was burned,” that is, Christianity, for the other two parts are Judaism and paganism. The third part of Christianity was corrupted by the fire of Arian faithlessness: “the earth,” as regards laypeople who cling to earthly things; “the trees,” as regards those who preside and stand above others as trees above the earth; and “the grass,” as regards recent converts, tender in conversion.
For when the Goths, disposed to receive the faith, asked the emperor Valens to send them bishops and priests who would instruct them in the teaching of Christ, he sent Arian priests who imbued them with the filth of that error.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
The second angel, namely an angel of Satan, was Macedonius. He said that the Son was of the same nature and essence as the Father, but that the Holy Spirit was a creature and servant of the Son. This evil angel therefore sounded the trumpet when, through his false teaching, he made his error manifest.
“And as it were a great mountain”—that is, a great heresy, lofty in pride and burning with the fire of faithlessness—“was cast into the sea,” namely the Church, which is called a sea by reason of baptism. “And the third part of the sea became blood”: a third part of the baptismal water was defiled, taking “baptism” here very broadly. Baptism is conferred in the name of the Trinity, and it is said to be defiled when, according to Macedonius, the Holy Spirit is asserted to be a creature and of servile condition.
“And the third part of the creatures in it died,” because many who had been regenerated through baptism and made a new creature were corrupted by that error. “And the third part of the ships” died, because many prelates—called ships because they ought to carry others to the harbor of salvation—were corrupted by the said error. It was condemned at the Council of Constantinople.
“And the third angel,” and so forth. This was the third heresiarch, Pelagius. In the time of the emperors Arcadius and Honorius he introduced this error concerning the grace of the Holy Spirit: that a human being could by purely natural powers, without God’s grace, merit eternal life. This error is rejected in On Consecration, Distinction 5, Placuit, and the canon which follows it. He also said that infants are born without original guilt and consequently are not cleansed from original sin through baptism. This is rejected in On Consecration, Distinction 4, Firmissime.
This evil angel therefore sounded the trumpet when he brought his error into the open by teaching it. “And there fell from heaven,” namely from the Church when he fell into such an error, “a great star,” Pelagius himself, who was learned and religious, for he was a monk, “burning as it were a torch.” He corrupted many by reason of his learning and his apparent holiness in conduct.
“And it fell upon the third part of the rivers,” and so forth. The rivers and fountains designate the Church sanctified by baptismal waters. “And the name of the star is called Wormwood,” because he preached against the sweetness of the grace of the Holy Spirit. “And the third part of the waters became wormwood,” because a great part of the Church was corrupted by his dogma, “and many people died” spiritually “from the waters,” that is, from his perverse doctrines, “because they were made bitter,” contrary to the sweetness of the grace of the Holy Spirit.
“And the fourth angel,” and so forth. This was the fourth heresiarch, Eutyches, who asserted that in our Lord Jesus Christ there was only one nature, just as there was one person. He said that from the divine nature and the human in the Incarnation one nature was produced by mixture, just as from elements a single mixed nature results in its own manner. This is impossible, since the divine nature can neither be mixed with another nor changed in any manner.
This evil angel Eutyches therefore sounded the trumpet when he spread his perverse dogma. “And the third part of the sun was struck,” namely the deity, which is called the sun in Wisdom 5. “Part,” however, is taken very broadly here, insofar as the Son of God is called the third person in the Trinity, that is, one of three. He is said to be struck because according to that error the Son of God would be neither God nor man, just as a mixture of elements is not any one of those elements but another nature resulting from them.
“And the third part of the moon” was struck, that is, the prelates who adhered to him; “and the third part of the day, and the third part of the night, was darkened.” The New Testament is designated by the day and the Old by the night, according to the saying, “The night has passed, and the day has drawn near.” Eutyches therefore, so far as lay in him, darkened part of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments by his error, speaking against those passages which treat Christ’s divine and human natures as distinct and unmixed. Eutyches expounded those Scriptures badly.
After this John says that he saw and heard the voice of one eagle flying through the midst of heaven, saying with a loud voice, “Woe, woe, woe to those who dwell upon the earth.” This eagle is either John the Evangelist himself or one of the holy patriarchs of Constantinople already deceased, foretelling a still greater tribulation about to come upon both the good and the evil in the Church under the trumpeting of the next three angels.
“And the fifth angel,” and so forth. Here John proceeds to the supporters of heretics: first the Vandals under the trumpet of the fifth angel, second the Italians under that of the sixth, and third the Goths under that of the seventh.
For an explanation of what follows, it should be known that the emperor Valens sent Arian priests to the land of the Goths, who wished to receive the faith of Christ, as was said above. Through them that nation of Goths was infected by the error, and the Vandal nation likewise. The Vandals inflicted a great tribulation upon the Church in Africa and afterward in Gaul and also in Italy, as is found in Book Eleven of the Historical Mirror and in several chronicles.
“And the fifth angel,” namely Valens, who began to reign in the year of the Lord 367 [read: 364]. “And I saw a star fallen from heaven to the earth,” that is, Valens, who through his wife’s persuasion fell from the height of the Catholic faith into the Arian heresy. For in different respects both good and evil human beings are called angels and stars.
“And to him was given the key of the bottomless pit,” that is, the power to revive and exalt the condemned heresy of Arius. Through imperial power he sent Arian priests to infect those peoples. “And he opened the bottomless pit, and smoke ascended,” and so forth: erroneous teaching which obscured the truth. Thus it follows: “And the sun was darkened,” that is, Christ, who according to that heresy is denied to be true God, “and the air,” that is, the Church, which is illuminated by Christ as air is by the sun. A great part of Christians was infected by that error.
“And from the smoke of the pit came forth locusts,” that is, the Vandals infected with the Arian heresy. They are called locusts because, just as a locust leaps from place to place, so the Vandals crossed from Spain into Africa and then entered Italy and Gaul, laying them waste.
“And power was given to them,” namely power permitted by God to harm people through stratagems and arms, by his just but hidden judgment. “And it was commanded them,” that is, they were prohibited by God, “that they should not harm the grass.”
Notice here that before the Vandals entered it, Africa was inhabited partly by Christians and partly by pagans. They killed the pagans but not the Christians. Lesser Christians are signified by grass, those of the middle rank by every green thing, and the greater by trees—“but only those people who do not have the sign of God,” that is, the pagans who are not marked with the sign of the cross.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 173.]
“And it was given to them that they should not kill them,” namely the Christians, to whom “them” refers, “but that they should torment them.” Although they did not kill the Christians, they nevertheless afflicted them in many ways, expelling their bishops and afflicting certain others. Hence Huneric, king of the Vandals, sent many bishops into exile, and his successor Thrasamund did likewise. Gillerme [read: Geilamir (Gelimer)] cut out the tongues of some Catholic bishops by the roots, yet afterward they miraculously spoke and preached.
“For five months.” This designates that the Vandal kingdom endured under five kings. Afterward it was extinguished and destroyed by the patrician Belisarius, sent into Africa by the emperor Justinian.
“And their torment was as the torment of scorpions.” Those kings first pretended benevolence toward the Christians and afterward afflicted them severely, to such a degree that many in the Church preferred to die rather than see that trampling of the Church. Therefore it follows: “And people shall seek death,” and so forth.
He then describes the qualities of the Vandals, whom he had called locusts, saying, “And the likenesses of the locusts were like horses prepared for battle.” This indicates that the Vandals were warlike people. “And upon their heads were as it were crowns like gold.” Gold signifies wisdom, and the Vandals appeared to possess more of the brilliance of natural ingenuity—which is broadly called wisdom—than the other barbarians.
“And their faces were as the faces of men,” because natural reason, called the face of the soul, flourished more in them than in other barbarians. “And they had hair like women’s hair,” because they grew their hair long. “And their teeth were as iron lions’ teeth,” for they were armed to invade other nations. “And the sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots,” because their army advanced with a great din. “And they had tails like scorpions,” and so forth.
“And they had over them a king, the angel of the bottomless pit, Abaddon,” namely some great prince of demons who drove them toward evil. “One woe is past, and behold, two more woes”: the affliction accomplished by one nation, the Vandals, comes to an end; the affliction of two others follows.
“And the sixth angel.” Here John proceeds to the supporters of heretics among the Italians and Constantinopolitans.
For an explanation it should be known that the emperor Anastasius, infected with the Eutychian heresy, began to reign in the year of the Lord 483 [read: 491] and reigned twenty-five years [read: twenty-seven years]. At that time Theodoric, an Arian, was king in Italy.
Then two popes were elected in contention, Symmachus and Laurence. A great conflict arose over them among the Christian people and clergy, proceeding even to many homicides. At length the Church rejected Laurence and accepted Symmachus.
Although Cardinal Paschasius was holy and devout, he erred in this, that so far as he could he supported Laurence, believing that the papacy belonged to him. Because of this, after his death Paschasius was seen by Germanus in the punishment of purgatory, as Gregory relates in Book Four of the Dialogues.
From these circumstances a great tribulation was stirred up in the Church because of four men: Symmachus and Laurence, who contended for the papacy, and Anastasius and Theodoric, from zeal for their heresies. Seeing the Catholic clergy contending even to homicide, the latter judged it worse than before, and likewise judged Catholic doctrine worse because of it; consequently they were incited to persecution.
“The sixth angel,” therefore, that is, Laurence, “sounded the trumpet,” because with wicked effort and proud speech he aspired to the papacy. “And I heard one voice from the horns of the altar,” namely the voice of Cardinal Paschasius, who belonged to the college of the Roman Church. In the election he gave his vote to Laurence and supported his party against the community of the Church.
The voice said to the sixth angel, Laurence: “Release the four angels who are bound in the great river Euphrates,” namely in the Roman Empire, which is called a great river because of the multitude of peoples existing within it. It is called Euphrates because, just as the Euphrates is the fourth river of paradise, so the Roman Empire is the fourth monarchy among the kingdoms of the world.
In this river, that is, among its people, four angels—Symmachus, Laurence, Anastasius, and Theodoric—were held as though bound before this election. Through the election they were brought into the aforesaid disturbance. “And the four angels were released, who were prepared for the hour and the day,” namely to disturb the Church continuously.
Although Paschasius, who was good, did not intend the Church’s disturbance, nevertheless it followed—although beyond his intention—from the election of Laurence, to whom he gave his vote. He is therefore said here to have told Laurence, “Release the four angels,” and so forth, because through Laurence’s ambition he and the other three went forward to disturb the Church.
“That they might kill the third part of mankind.” This third part is said to be the Catholic people, a great portion of whom was killed: partly by evil adherents of Laurence, partly likewise by adherents of Symmachus, partly by the heretical emperor Anastasius, who sent many Catholic bishops into exile and afflicted many faithful people, and partly by the Arian king Theodoric, who wished as far as possible to destroy all Italy. He martyred Pope John, the patrician Symmachus, and Boethius, most illustrious men.
“And the number of the army of horsemen” adhering to those four and following them in disturbing Christians “was twenty thousand times ten thousand.” A determinate number is placed here for an indeterminate one, and it denotes their great multitude.
“And thus I saw the horses in the vision,” that is, the subjects of the said four, obeying them in evil, and especially Anastasius and Theodoric; “and he who sat upon them [read: those who sat upon them],” namely the aforesaid four who led them. “They had breastplates.” The breastplate of the evil is injustice, just as, conversely, that of the good is justice: breastplates “of fire” through their burning appetite to harm, “of hyacinth” through an apparent zeal for the faith signified by the heavenly color, and “of sulfur” because of the foulness of their vices.
“And the heads of the horses,” that is, the princes of the wicked, “were as heads of lions,” most cruel. “And from their mouths proceeded fire,” namely rivalry as regards Laurence and Symmachus; “smoke,” namely vanity as regards the emperor Anastasius; and “sulfur” as regards the Arian Theodoric.
“By these plagues the third part of mankind was killed,” namely a great part of the Christians. “And the rest of mankind who were not killed by these plagues”—supply: for the faith of Christ, as those were—but were killed by bodily and eternal death.
He touches incidentally upon a great slaughter of pagans, who were not of the Church, in Theodoric’s time. When the Saxons met the Thuringians in battle, a great slaughter was made on each side. The reason for their eternal death is given in what follows: “Because they did not repent of their works,” and so forth.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
“And I saw another angel.” After the aforesaid tribulation of the Church, John here sets forth her consolation and its fruit, namely devotion.
For an explanation, it should be known that after the heretic Anastasius, Justin reigned for ten years. He began to reign in the year of the Lord 518. Burning with love of the Christian religion, he wished in the eastern regions to take the Arians’ churches away from them and have them consecrated by Catholics. But he did not carry this out, being hindered by the entreaties of Pope John, lest on that account all the Catholics in Italy should be killed by the sword of Theodoric, the Arian king, who had threatened to do so if this were done.
Of this Justin, therefore, it is said: “I saw another mighty angel,” mighty because of his imperial power, “descending from heaven,” namely from the Church militant through baptism, “clothed with a cloud,” that is, heavenly grace. “And a rainbow was upon his head,” which is the sign of the covenant, for he had peace in the intention of his mind. “His face was as the sun” because of the splendor of his faith, “and his feet as pillars of fire,” that is, his affections were kindled by charity for the advancement of Christianity.
“And he had in his hand a little open book,” because throughout his empire he wrote and sent letters in favor of Christians. “And he set his right foot upon the sea, and his left upon the earth,” because he wrote to those dwelling both upon islands of the sea and on land. Or Christians are signified by the sea because of the water of baptism, while pagans are signified by the earth because they are immersed in earthly things. He commanded both groups. But because he was more favorable to Christians, he is said to have placed his right foot upon the sea.
“And he cried with a loud voice,” issuing commands by imperial authority, which is great, “as when a lion roars,” to the terror of the Arians. “And when he had cried, seven thunders uttered their voices”: the universality of the churches, designated by the number seven, cried out in voices of divine praise.
Nevertheless, because Justin did not accomplish what he intended against the Arians for the reason already given, John is forbidden to write those things. Hence it is said: “Seal up the things which the seven thunders uttered,” and so forth.
“And the angel whom I saw.” It should be noted here that kings and princes have two guardian angels: one by reason of their individual person, as do all human beings, of whom Matthew 18 says, “Their angels,” and so forth; another by reason of their dignity or office, who are said to be from the order of Principalities, concerning whom Daniel 10 speaks. These angels are sometimes taken for the kings or kingdoms over which they preside, and so it is in the present passage.
Hence it says: “The angel whom I saw standing upon the sea,” that is, Justin’s angel, “raised his hand to heaven and swore,” for greater assurance of the future event, “that time shall be no more.” This is not to be understood as an absolute cessation of time, because even after the trumpet of the seventh angel a long course of time is described down to the end of the world. It means the cessation of time with respect to the strength of the Arian heresy, as will appear in the following chapter. This was fulfilled in the time of Justin the Younger, the third emperor counting from this Justin the Elder.
From this it is evident that what is said here of the angel standing upon the sea and the land cannot be understood of Justin the Elder himself, for he had no knowledge of things to be done after his death. His angel, however, knew by divine revelation that Justin the Elder’s will concerning the destruction of the Arian heresy—although hindered for the aforesaid reason—would be fulfilled in the time of Justin the Younger. As he foreknew it, so he swore it.
“When he shall begin to sound the trumpet,” for this was fulfilled at the beginning of Justin the Younger’s reign, “the whole mystery,” that is, the secret foreseen by God, “shall be accomplished, as he announced through his servants the prophets.” In the days of the seventh angel the Christians prevailed against heretics and unbelievers. Then John heard voices in heaven saying: “The kingdom of this world has become the kingdom of Christ,” and so forth.
“And the voice which I heard.” Here the continuation of the Church’s consolation is set forth through the emperor Justinian, who at the beginning of his reign was truly Catholic. Succeeding Justin, he began to reign in the year of the Lord 528 [read: 527]. He was a learned man, abridged the Roman laws, and compiled them in one volume called the Code of Justinian, in which he placed many laws favorable to Christians. John speaks here of this book.
“And the voice which I heard” was the voice of the angel through whom Christ spoke to John: “Go, take the open book,” that is, the Code of Justinian, which is said here to be received by John because it was favorable to the Church, “from the hand of the angel standing upon the sea.” This was Justinian’s angel by reason of the imperial office.
“And he said to me: Take it and devour it,” as something delightful, “and it shall make your belly bitter,” because at the end of his life Justinian was corrupted by heresy. Thus the memory of him contained in the book, which had first been sweet, was made bitter to the faithful.
From this it is evident that the angel who handed the book to John was not Justinian himself, who did not foresee his fall into heresy, but his angel. Speaking to John, the angel also added: “You must prophesy again,” because John afterward wrote prophetically about many nations and peoples.
“And there was given me a reed,” and so forth. Here is set forth the fruit of devotion which followed from the Church’s consolation.
It should be known that Pope Felix, who presided over the Roman Church in those times, established that the feast of a church’s dedication should be celebrated every year. In the dedication of a church, the bishop walks around the church to be dedicated and so acts as one measuring its walls outside; inside, by writing the alphabet upon the pavement from one corner to another, he likewise appears to measure it.
Accordingly John speaks prophetically in the person of the Church: “And there was given me a reed like a rod.” For the one dedicating the church holds a sprinkler in his hand. “Arise and measure the temple.” “But cast out the court which is outside,” for Felix established that Mass should not be celebrated except in a sacred place.
“And I saw the city,” and so forth. John returns here to describe a certain tribulation of the Church stirred up by Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople. Because he was corrupted by the Eutychian heresy, Pope Agapetus deposed him and appointed in his place Mennas, a servant of God and a monk.
But the empress Theodora, infected with the same heresy, asked Pope Silverius to restore Anthimus. Because he refused, Theodora became indignant, and her husband Justinian, corrupted by Anthimus with the Eutychian heresy, began a persecution against the Church’s ministers. Consequently Silverius was in fact deposed and sent into exile by the patrician Guillisarius [read: Belisarius], as is found in Cause 23, Question 4, Guillisarius [read: Belisarius], and Mennas, the servant of God, was afflicted in prison.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 174.]
This is what John says: “And they shall tread underfoot the holy city,” namely the Church gathered in the unity of faithful citizens. Anthimus, Justinian, Theodora, and Guillisarius [read: Belisarius] would tread it down by gravely oppressing the Church’s ministers “for forty-two months,” that is, three and a half years. That persecution is said to have lasted so long.
“And I will give to my two witnesses” constancy and wisdom. These two were Silverius and Mennas, who stood steadfastly against the supporters of the Eutychian heresy. “And they shall prophesy,” that is, preach, “for twelve hundred days [read: one thousand two hundred sixty days],” namely the same period, “clothed in sackcloth,” that is, in mean garments. Silverius, stripped of the papal habit, was clothed in the monastic habit.
“These are the two olive trees,” and so forth, because of the fullness of their piety. What follows is expounded in their praise.
“The beast which ascends from the bottomless pit” is the cruel patrician Guillisarius [read: Belisarius]. “He shall make war against them,” namely Silverius and Mennas, “and shall kill them” by a civil death, sending them into exile. “And their bodies shall lie,” that is, they shall be regarded as vile, like a corpse lying “in the street.”
“And after three and a half days the spirit of life will enter into them [read: entered into them]”: after three and a half years they were restored to their former state. For in the year of the Lord 536 Silverius again sat upon the papal throne, “and great fear fell upon them,” that is, upon the Eutychians.
Yet Silverius, again sent into exile, died there as a martyr and thus ascended to heaven through the palm of martyrdom. The same is said of God’s servant Mennas, who is also read to have shone through miracles after his death.
It should nevertheless be known that this text concerning the two witnesses is commonly expounded of Enoch and Elijah, who will come at the end of the world to testify against Antichrist, who will at last kill them.
“And in that hour.” After the persecution of the Church carried out by the Vandals and the princes of Constantinople and Italy has been described, the persecution by the Goths is set forth here.
It should be known that at the time when Justinian, Theodora, and Anthimus persecuted the Church’s ministers, Pope Vigilius was dragged through the city of Constantinople with a rope around his neck, and the clergy brought with him were condemned to work the mines in different places.
On account of this, by God’s judgment Totila, king of the Goths, gathered a great army, invaded the empire, traversed many provinces, and laid waste Italy. He killed Saint Herculanus, bishop of Perugia, with his people, and many other Christians in different places.
Therefore it says: “In that hour,” namely in the time of Justinian when he was corrupted by the Arian heresy, shortly after the death of Silverius and Mennas, “there was made a great earthquake,” that is, a great commotion among those dwelling on the earth through King Totila, “and the tenth part of the city fell,” that is, a great part of the Christian people, so great that it might amount to a tenth part.
“And in the earthquake were slain the names of seven thousand men,” that is, a great number of distinguished men. A determinate number is placed for an indeterminate one. “And the rest were cast into fear,” that is, the Roman people, who greatly feared when Totila took the city of Rome. Yet he neither killed the people nor burned the city, and therefore it follows: “They gave glory to God,” namely for their escape.
“The second woe is past,” that is, the aforesaid tribulation.
“And the seventh angel.” Here the destruction of the Goths is described. Justin the Younger succeeded Justinian in the empire and began to reign in the year of the Lord 566 [read: 565]. He appointed Narses, a Roman patrician and a man vigorous in arms, and sent him to restrain the nation of the Goths. Gathering a great army, Narses conquered the Goths and killed their king. Thus Italy, liberated, served Christ without fear.
This is what is said: “And the seventh angel,” that is, the emperor Justin, “sounded the trumpet,” that is, by imperial authority he especially sent into Italy. “And great voices were made in heaven,” that is, in the Church militant, because when the Goths had been killed, the Church broke forth in voices of divine praise, saying: “The kingdom of this world has become the kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ.” For then Italy, in which is Rome, the earthly capital of Christ’s kingdom, freely served Christ, liberated from the Goths and the other Arians.
“And the twenty-four elders,” that is, the prelates of the churches, gave thanks to God for their liberation. “And the nations were angry,” that is, the Goths, because of their defeat, and so forth.
“And heaven was opened.” Here an increase of devotion is set forth, for in that time a great mortality occurred.
“And a great sign appeared in heaven,” and so forth. After describing the Church’s assault by heretics properly so called, he now sets forth its assault by those called heretics in a broad sense. In this manner pagans, Saracens, schismatics, disciples of Antichrist, and other unbelievers can be called heretics. He therefore now treats of the assault by pagans and afterward by Saracens.
It should be known that during the reign of Phocas, who began to reign in the year of the Lord 605 [read: 602], the Persians under King Khosrow launched very grievous wars. They invaded many Roman provinces and even Jerusalem itself. Destroying churches and profaning sacred places, among the sacred ornaments they carried off was the Holy Cross, in part left there by Helena, as appears in the legend of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross.
The Church, afflicted in this manner, therefore labored until she brought forth a son who would liberate her from the oppression of Khosrow and his people. This is what is said: “A great sign appeared in heaven,” namely the Church militant. “A woman,” that is, the Church generally and, more specifically, the Church of Jerusalem, “clothed with the sun,” through the conduct and imitation of Christ, who is called the sun of justice; “and the moon under her feet,” that is, all mutable and transitory things beneath her affections through contempt; “and upon her head,” that is, in her mind, “a crown of twelve stars,” namely faith in the twelve articles or the preaching and teaching of the twelve apostles.
“And being with child,” having in her heart the desire for her liberation, “she cried out in labor.” Placed in distress, she cried to God that he would quickly give her a son to liberate her from the oppression of the unbelievers.
“And another sign was seen in heaven,” namely Khosrow, king of the Persians, who is said to be seen in the heaven of the Church militant as her persecutor. Hence his quality is added: “And behold a dragon,” Khosrow himself, because of his malice and deceit; “great,” because of his power; “red,” because of the shedding of blood or the burning of sacred places; “having seven heads,” that is, seven kings subject to him, though he himself was the seventh; “and ten horns,” that is, ten battle lines in his army.
Or the seven kings mean the whole body of princes subject to him, and the horns the whole body of his warriors. “And his tail,” that is, the army following him, “drew the third part of the stars,” that is, of the faithful. From Egypt, Libya, and the Holy Land he captured and killed many of the faithful.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
“And the dragon stood before the woman,” because Khosrow lay in wait for her in every way and strove against every Christian prince who wished to defend her.
“And she brought forth a son.” Here the elevation of the emperor Heraclius is noted. She brought forth a son, namely Heraclius, when he was raised to the empire. He began to reign in the year of the Lord 613 [read: 610] after Phocas and reigned for thirty years.
He is called “a male” to signify that he was a vigorous man practiced in arms, “who was to rule all nations with an iron rod,” because he ruled the Roman Empire, subduing by the sword all who rebelled against it.
“And her son was caught up to the throne of God,” that is, he was placed under God’s protection. God protected him against the snares and deceits by which Khosrow sought to kill him.
“And the woman fled into the wilderness.” For the Church which was in Asia, crossing in fear of Khosrow the sea called the Arm of Saint George, came into Greece. Greece is called a wilderness here, not because it was uninhabitable, but in relation to these fugitives, so that “they might feed her there,” namely the Christians dwelling in Greece, “for twelve hundred days [read: one thousand two hundred sixty days],” that is, three and a half years.
Later in the same chapter it says that this woman is nourished there “for a time,” that is, one year, “and times,” that is, two years, “and half a time,” that is, half a year. This is three and a half years. Joining these together, the three and a half years denoted by twelve hundred days [read: one thousand two hundred sixty days] and the three and a half years comprised in the said “times” make seven years. The war between the Persians and Heraclius lasted so long.
Then Heraclius’s victory over Khosrow is set forth. Hence it follows: “And there was a great battle,” great both in intensity and extent, because many were in each army and it lasted a long time, “and Michael fought, and his angels.”
Although this can be expounded of Michael the archangel, who is the prince of the Church and who, together with good angels, protected and directed Heraclius against Khosrow in such a battle—just as the devil can be understood by the dragon and demons by his angels, who incited Khosrow against Heraclius and the Church—it is nevertheless more fitting to say that Michael with his angels signifies Heraclius with the Christian army, and Khosrow with his forces is understood by the dragon with his angels.
“And they did not prevail,” that is, Khosrow did not prevail against Heraclius, “neither was their place found any longer in heaven,” that is, in the Church militant, in which he had been present with his nation not as a member but as a persecutor. For Heraclius drove him out of Ethiopia, Libya, and the Holy Land, in which places the Church had previously flourished, and compelled him shamefully to return to his own land.
“And that great old dragon was cast down.” He is called old either because the kingdom of the Persians was ancient or because Khosrow himself was advanced in age. He “was called the devil and Satan” because of his excessive wickedness, just as even now it is said of a thoroughly evil person that he is a devil.
“Who seduced the whole world,” because he caused himself to be worshiped as a god. He had made a silver tower in which he resided and other things related in the legend of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. “The whole world” is hyperbole, meaning the great part of the world that he had subjected to himself.
“And I heard a loud voice,” namely the thanksgiving to God by the children of the Church for Khosrow’s casting down from the heaven of the Church militant, saying: “Now salvation and strength have been accomplished,” and so forth, because the faithful, freed from that tyrant, could serve Christ freely.
“Because the accuser of our brethren has been cast down,” namely the accuser of the Christians, whom he made blameworthy before God by inducing them to the evil of idolatry. “And they overcame him.” This does not refer to those who complied with Khosrow by practicing idolatry but to the faithful who chose to die rather than depart from the true faith. Hence it follows: “And they did not love their lives,” that is, their bodily lives.
“Therefore rejoice, heavens,” and so forth, namely over the glorification of the martyrs and the casting down of Khosrow.
“Woe to the earth and the sea,” that is, to Khosrow’s subjects who dwelt on the land and to some who dwelt on islands of the sea. Compelled to return to his own land, he angrily burdened his subjects in order to multiply his fighting men, so that he might defend his kingdom against the emperor Heraclius.
“Because the devil has descended,” that is, Khosrow for the reason already given, “having but a short time.” He was an old man and therefore entrusted the kingdom to his son.
“After the dragon saw,” and so forth. Although he had persecuted the Church before, he did so much more after he had been put to flight, just as King Sennacherib acted toward the children of Israel when he returned from Judea confounded by the destruction of his army.
“And there were given to her two wings of a great eagle.” Here is explained something said above, namely how the woman clothed with the sun fled into the wilderness. This occurred through the assistance of Heraclius. The eagle is the sign of the Roman Empire, and its wings are the battle lines of its military army.
Heraclius sent many soldiers from the region of Greece to receive the Christians fleeing from Persia. Or he sent so great an army into the extremities of Persia that Khosrow’s peoples there were wholly occupied in resistance. Thus, while they were occupied, the Christians who were there were able to leave and go into Greece. In this manner he assisted the woman, that is, the Church, so that she might go into the wilderness of Greece, “where she is nourished for a time,” and so forth, as expounded above.
“And the serpent sent out of his mouth after the woman water,” that is, a great people to kill the Christians. “And the earth helped the woman,” that is, Greece or the army of Heraclius helped the Church, “and swallowed the river,” because the people sent by Khosrow were defeated.
“And the dragon was angry against the woman,” that is, against the Catholic people, “and went to make war with the rest of her seed,” that is, with those Christians who could not flee with the others, or with Heraclius to prevent him from entering the Persian kingdom.
“And he stood upon the sand of the sea,” that is, on the boundaries of the territory of the Persian kingdom. That kingdom is called a sea because it was very populous, and the sand is the extremity of the sea. This was so that Heraclius might not disturb the borders of the kingdom.
“And I saw coming up from the sea.” After the description of the persecution carried out against the Church by Khosrow, the persecution of the same Church under his son, who succeeded him in the kingdom, is now set forth.
“And I saw rising from the sea,” that is, from the Persian kingdom, “a beast,” namely Khosrow’s son, who lived beastly, ascending to the power of the Persian kingdom. He had “seven heads and ten horns,” expounded as above in the preceding chapter concerning his father, “and upon the heads names of blasphemy,” because the commanders of his army he despised [read: they despised] the name of Christ.
“And the beast was like a leopard” because of the variety of vices in which he was obstinate, “and his feet were like the feet of a bear,” which has large soles for trampling, for he likewise aspired to trample the Church, “and his mouth like the mouth of a lion” because of his great cruelty. “And the dragon gave him his power,” because Khosrow entrusted the kingdom to him while remaining in the silver tower.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 175.]
“And I saw,” and so forth. In the history of the Exaltation of the Cross it is said that the army of Heraclius and the army of Khosrow’s son met near the Danube. By common consent of both sides, it was decreed and agreed that Heraclius and Khosrow’s son alone should fight one another, and that the defeated man with his army should submit to the victor. Heraclius prevailed in the combat, and the other submitted to him.
This is noted when it says: “And I saw one of the heads,” that is, Khosrow’s son, the first and principal head, “as though slain to death,” that is, defeated and subjected to Heraclius. It therefore says “as though slain” because he was not actually dead. “And his mortal wound was healed,” because he later rebelled against Heraclius and was thereby cured of his subjection.
“And they worshiped the beast,” namely those of his nation, “saying: Who is like the beast?” boasting of his power.
But Nicholas says that it is better expounded thus: when Khosrow’s son was wounded almost to death in one battle with Heraclius, beyond all hope he was healed from the wound fairly quickly. Because of this, his peoples believed there was something divine in him, by whose power he had been healed, and therefore worshiped him like his father as a god. Hence they said, “Who is like the beast?” as though to say, No one, because even if wounded in battle he will quickly be healed.
“And power was given to him to make war with the saints,” because he killed Saint Anastasius with sixty monks and many others, “for forty-two months,” that is, three and a half years. Just as Heraclius’s war with Khosrow lasted three and a half years, so his war with Khosrow’s son lasted another three and a half years.
“And there was given to the beast power over every tribe,” and so forth. This is an exaggeration, meaning over many. “And all worshiped him who are not written in the book of the life of the Lamb,” that is, in the book of predestination. It is called the Lamb’s book of life by reason both of his divinity and of his humanity, insofar as all the predestined are saved in faith in the mediator, “who was slain from the origin of the world.”
This is understood in two ways: first, dispositively, insofar as God determined from eternity that Christ should be slain, just as he determined to create the world, and then was the world’s first origin; or figuratively, because Christ’s Passion was figured from the beginning of the world’s creation, as in Abel’s death and many other things.
“He who has ears to hear,” that is, understanding, “let him hear” the end of this war between Heraclius and the Persians: the Persians, who had taken many captive, were taken captive by Heraclius. “And he who kills by the sword,” and so forth, because Khosrow, who had killed many, was killed.
“Here is the patience and faith of the saints,” namely proved and exalted, because Zacharias, patriarch of Jerusalem, who with many other saints had been led captive into Persia by Khosrow, possessed the merit of patience and was brought back free to Jerusalem.
After describing the persecution of the Church by Khosrow and his son, John now sets forth its persecution under Muhammad.
It should be known that although different people give different accounts of the beginning of Muhammad’s sect, it is more commonly held that it began near the end of the reign of Heraclius, of whom the foregoing has spoken.
Muhammad was raised from poverty to riches and thought of becoming king of the Ishmaelites, the people to which he belonged and who are properly called Hagarenes. Ishmael, from whom they take their origin, was the son of the bondwoman Hagar, not of Sarah; but they appropriated for themselves a name from Sarah so as to be called Saracens.
To accomplish his purpose, Muhammad used the advice and assistance of a certain heretic named Sergius, a monk, in composing a false and carnal law colored with certain authorities from the Old and New Testaments. In this way it might more easily be received not only by gentiles inclined to carnal things but also by simple Christians and Jews dwelling in those regions. He also pretended that this law had been revealed to him by God as to the supreme prophet.
John therefore now says of him: “I saw another beast,” namely Muhammad, who led a voluptuous life like a beast, for he was more lustful than all eastern men, “ascending from the earth,” because through commerce and plunder he rose from poverty to riches.
“And he had two horns like the Lamb,” that is, Christ. These horns are prophecy and the promulgation of a new law. The accursed Muhammad pretended to be a prophet and a giver of divine law, as Christ truly and actually was, by foretelling many future and hidden things and establishing a new law. “And he spoke like a dragon,” cunningly, falsely, and deceitfully.
“And he exercised all the power of the former beast.” The former beast may be called Khosrow, whose Persian kingdom he transferred to the Saracens. But it is better said that the first beast is Muhammad himself, the first king of the Saracens who lived beastly. Whatever the first king of any region customarily does to establish and enlarge his state, Muhammad likewise did diligently, exercising his power.
“And he made the earth and those dwelling in it worship the first beast,” that is, himself living beastly. He did not, however, cause himself to be worshiped as a god, as Khosrow did, but as the prophet of the supreme God, “whose mortal wound was healed.” He was gravely wounded in a certain battle but afterward was healed, as is said in the Book of Eastern Histories.
“And he performed great signs,” though false, “so that he made fire descend from heaven.” This fire is spoken of metaphorically. After Muhammad had become great, he began to fall in epileptic seizures. Lest he should be held in contempt for this, he said that he suffered it from the apparition of the angel Gabriel, since as a mere man he was unable to endure the shining apparition of an angel. Something similar had happened to many in the Old Testament, and angels are called fire, as appears in Psalm 103.
But because this was false, the text therefore adds, “in the sight of men,” that is, in the false opinion of those who believed him. His disciples also said that he summoned the moon and caused it to descend, and the moon agrees with fire by reason of its light.
“And he seduced those who dwell on the earth,” through himself and his disciples, “by the signs which were falsely said of him in the sight of the beast,” whether this means himself or the people themselves who lived beastly, “that they should make an image of the beast.”
The law he gave is called his image, because his character and life are represented in it. He commanded that it be firmly observed. This is what is meant by “that they should make an image,” that is, fulfill his law in practice.
“And it was given to him,” that is, it was permitted by God, “that he should give spirit to the image,” that is, vigor to his law. A law is called living so long as it has force, and dead when it is abrogated.
“And that the image of the beast should speak,” that is, should reveal its judgment, just as it is said, “Such a law speaks in such a case.” Nearly everything here is taken metaphorically.
“And he will cause that whoever do not worship” the image should be punished; for he commanded, under penalty of death, that his law be held in great reverence.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
“And he will cause all, both small and great,” that is, all people of whatever condition, “to have a mark,” namely circumcision, as some say, for Saracens are circumcised just as Jews are. Or, better, by the mark is understood a determinate manner of living according to Muhammad’s law, by which they are distinguished from other nations.
It is therefore said to be “in the right hand” with respect to action, “or on their foreheads” through open profession. “And that no one may buy or sell,” that is, communicate with the Saracens in their legal affairs, “unless he has the mark of the beast,” that is, the aforesaid manner of living; “or the name,” as possessed by pretended Saracens, on account of which they are permitted to communicate with true Christians, as it is among the Saracens; “or the number of his name,” as possessed by servants of the Saracens who nevertheless follow another law and communicate with them in human affairs because they belong to the number of the household of a Saracen home.
“Here is wisdom.” Here is set forth the revelation of a certain secret meaning, namely a number of years referring to Muhammad. Therefore it says: “Here is wisdom,” that is, a matter hidden from understanding, which the wise, who have a lively intellect penetrating hidden things, can properly grasp.
“Let him calculate the number of the beast,” that is, of Muhammad, who lived as a beast, “and it is the number of a man, and his number is six hundred sixty-six.”
It may be asked to what this determinate number refers. It is clear that it does not refer to the number of the years of Muhammad’s life, because he lived sixty-three years, as is found in the Historical Mirror.
Some say that this number refers to the duration of his law, because it lasted so long. But this is plainly false. His law began around the end of the reign of Heraclius, who began to reign in the year of the Lord 613 [read: 610] and reigned for thirty years. From the end of that time until the present—namely the time of Nicholas of Lyra, who wrote this—is a much longer period, for the current year of the Lord is 1329, and that accursed law still endures.
Others say that after Muhammad’s death that law was corrected by wise Saracens, and this number is counted from that correction. But this too does not appear true, because those wise men are said to have been Muhammad’s disciples. Thus the correction was not a long time after Muhammad, nor did that law come to an end.
It has endured from its beginning to the present for seven hundred eighty-eight years, for we are now in the year of the Lord 1452, nearly completed. Indeed it has grown stronger, for, as is said, the Tartars, who are very numerous, have in great part received it.
It appears, therefore, that this number must be counted from the Lord’s Incarnation to the death of Muhammad, of whom John speaks prophetically here. The passage can be explained thus: “The number of the man,” namely Christ, who was perfect in knowledge and virtues from the beginning of his conception, “is his number,” namely Muhammad’s: six hundred sixty-six, because that number of years extended from the year in which the Lord became man to the year of Muhammad’s death.
It should be known that the book of the Apocalypse was written in Greek. There this name Antemos appears where it says “six hundred sixty-six.” The name’s proper signification is “contrary,” which properly applies to Muhammad, who was contrary to Christ, denying his divinity and persecuting Christians. The numerical value of the letters of that word is 666.
For just as in Latin some letters are employed to signify certain numbers—such as C for one hundred, L for fifty, and so forth—so too in Greek certain letters stand for numbers. The letters with which the name Antemos is written in Greek signify the number 666. For this reason some Latin Bibles give the reading, “And his number is DIC LVX.” Among the Latins that expression signifies the aforesaid number: D signifies five hundred, I one, C one hundred, L fifty, V five, and X ten. Thus that number is obtained.
“And I saw,” and so forth. Here is described the reward of those who endured Muhammad’s persecution.
For an explanation it should be noted, according to the chronicle of Hugh of Fleury, that around the end of Heraclius’s reign the Saracens under Muhammad’s leadership began gravely to invade Egypt and Ethiopia. Likewise Omar, Muhammad’s disciple, occupied Damascus, the region of Phoenicia, Jerusalem, all Syria, and Antioch.
In these places there were many devout Christians gathered in monasteries in groups of one hundred, two hundred, and still greater numbers. Most of them lived in virginity or widowed chastity. Through the swords of the Saracens they passed to the kingdom of heaven.
To signify this John says: “And I saw, and behold, the Lamb,” that is, Christ, “stood upon Mount Zion,” that is, in the Church triumphant. He is said to stand as though to help those martyrs endure martyrdom, “and with him one hundred forty-four thousand,” for it is estimated that so many, or about so many, were killed.
They had “his name and the name of his Father,” and consequently that of the Holy Spirit, who is the bond between the two, “written upon their foreheads” through open and free confession.
“And I heard a voice in heaven as the voice of many waters,” that is, of the multitude of those saints praising God for their victory, “and as the voice of thunder,” denoting the greatness of their praise, “and as the voice of harpists,” and so forth, because this praise was pleasing before God and the angels.
“And they sang a new song” because they belonged to the New Testament, “and no one could sing it,” and so forth. Through their vow of continence they had something special in merit and therefore also in reward.
“Who were purchased from the earth,” namely by the blood of Christ; “who were not defiled with women,” either by simply preserving bodily integrity or by preserving chastity after a vow.
“These follow the Lamb,” that is, Christ, not only in observing the commandments but also the counsels. “These were purchased as first fruits,” pleasing like the first fruits. “And in their mouth,” and so forth, for with a constant mind they confessed the truth of the faith. “They are without stain,” because through martyrdom they were cleansed from every stain.
“And I saw another angel.” Here is incidentally set forth a certain wonderful conversion of many people which occurred around those times. Saint Boniface was sent by the Roman pontiff to preach the Catholic faith to the Thuringians in Austria and Frisia. On that mission he converted many to the faith.
This is what is said here: “And I saw another angel,” namely Saint Boniface, “flying through the midst of heaven,” swiftly and promptly carrying out the office entrusted to him, “having the eternal gospel” in his heart and mouth, for no other will succeed it, “that he might preach it to those who sit upon the earth,” that is, to the aforesaid peoples, among whom the languages differed at least in some respect.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 176.]
He was prepared to preach not only to those nations but generally to all willing to hear him, and therefore it says, “to every nation,” and so forth, “saying with a loud voice,” which denotes the efficacy of his preaching: “Fear the Lord” with filial fear, “and give him honor” as a son does his father, “because the hour of his judgment has come,” generally at the end of the world and particularly at the death of each person. “And worship him,” and so forth, who is the creator of all things, not vain idols.
Next is set forth the punishment of those who persecuted Christians.
“And another angel.” It should be known that Constans, grandson of the emperor Heraclius, fell into the heresy of the Monothelites, who denied two natures in Christ. He gravely afflicted and sent into exile many ministers of the Church who would not assent to his heresy.
Because of this, Pope Martin convened a council and condemned that heresy together with its supporters. He was therefore taken to Constantinople so that he might assent to that heresy; because he refused, he was sent into exile and died there.
Some expound this passage in this way when it says: “Another angel,” that is, Pope Martin, “followed, saying,” namely by condemning the said heresy: “Babylon has fallen,” that is, the empire of the Greeks. It is said to have fallen in two ways: because of its heretical patriarch and emperor, with whom many others fell; and it is called Babylon, which is interpreted “confusion,” because that state was shameful.
What follows—“and a third angel”—they expound of Gregory III, who excommunicated the emperor Leo, who assumed the empire after Theodosius in the year of the Lord 718 [read: 717], because he followed a condemned heresy.
But it seems better to say that John speaks of Muhammad and his followers, whose persecution he had treated above but whose punishment he had not expressed.
Accordingly, “another angel,” namely Saint John, says: “Babylon has fallen, has fallen,” that is, the nation of the Saracens. Their law is full of confusion because it permits a voluptuous life and also because of its confused manner of proceeding: it is handed down without order and the same thing is frequently and uselessly repeated, nor is it supported by the authority of any Scripture or any reasoning.
It is called great because that nation has multiplied and expanded greatly. It is said to have fallen because around those times it fought with the Romans, and in that conflict three emirs were killed with many others, as appears in the chronicles of Sigebert.
“Which made all nations drink of the wine of her fornication” is hyperbole, signifying the great multitude of nations infected with Muhammad’s error. His law permits the delights of the flesh, toward which the multitude is inclined.
“And the third angel.” Here their eternal punishment is described. This third angel is some good angel or some holy preacher against Muhammad’s sect.
“If anyone worships the beast,” namely Muhammad, as was said above concerning his image and mark, “he shall drink of the wine of God’s wrath,” that is, he shall be gravely punished by the Lord, “which is mixed with pure wine.” God’s temporal punishment for correction is called pure wine; but when the punishment of Gehenna follows, it is called mixed wine.
Thus the Saracens were then punished temporally by the Romans, as was said, and together with this by eternal punishment. Therefore it follows: “And they shall be tormented with fire and sulfur.” “And the smoke of their torments,” and so forth, is eternal and continuous, and therefore it follows: “And they had no rest,” and so forth, as is evident from what was said in the preceding chapter.
“Here is the patience of the saints,” for the patience of Christians was exercised many times and in many ways by the Saracens.
“And I heard.” After the perpetual punishment of the evil, the eternal recompense of the good is described, so that opposites may become more evident. John is therefore told, “Write,” as a most notable matter, “Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord,” that is, in confession of the Lord through the palm of martyrdom, such as those one hundred forty-four thousand of whom he spoke above.
“For from henceforth, says the Holy Spirit,” who is one God with the Father and the Son and works inseparably in us. Yet because our works possess their efficacy to be meritorious from the grace of the Holy Spirit, spiritual reward is specially attributed to him: “that they may rest from their labors,” for in beatitude desire is wholly at rest.
After beginning the persecution by the Saracens, another persecution, that of the Lombards, is set forth here.
“And I saw.” It should be known that in the year of the Lord 753 Asculphus [read: Aistulf], king of the Lombards in Italy, greatly afflicted the Church. Therefore Pope Stephen crossed into France seeking assistance against that king. He obtained it first from King Pepin and afterward from Charlemagne.
“And I saw, and behold, a white cloud.” By this is understood the kingdom of France, adorned with faith and morals, “and one sitting upon the cloud,” namely King Pepin, “like the Son of Man,” conformed to Christ in justice and goodness, although this conformity was very remote, “having a golden crown upon his head,” for the kings of France are crowned with a golden crown, “and in his hand,” that is, in his power, “a sharp sickle,” namely a very warlike army through which Pepin had many great victories.
“And another angel,” namely Pope Stephen, “came out of the temple,” that is, the Roman Church, “crying with a loud voice,” earnestly beseeching “the one sitting upon the cloud,” namely King Pepin: “Send your sickle and reap,” that is, direct your army against the tyrannizing Asculphus [read: Aistulf], “because the hour has come for it to be reaped,” that is, for his tyranny to be taken away, “because the harvest is dry,” that is, he and his army are hardened in their malice.
“And the one sitting upon the cloud sent his sickle,” because Pepin sent forth his army, entered Italy with a strong force, “and reaped the earth,” for he fought valiantly against Asculphus [read: Aistulf] and restored to Pope Stephen what Asculphus [read: Aistulf] had taken from his jurisdiction.
“And another angel.” Here is described the aid rendered to the Church against the Lombards by Charlemagne.
It should be known that in the year of the Lord 774 Charles, king of France, entered Italy at the entreaties of Pope Adrian with a strong army against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, who was afflicting the Church in many ways. This is also contained in Gratian’s Decretum, Distinction 63, Adrianus. After attacking King Desiderius, Charles finally captured him and took him with him to France, where the kingdom of the Lombards came to an end.
This is touched upon when it says: “And another angel,” namely Charlemagne, “came out of the temple,” that is, in the month in which he was crowned, from the temple which is in the heaven of the Church militant, “himself also having a sharp sickle,” that is, a strong army, indeed one stronger than his father’s army.
“And another angel came out from the altar,” namely Pope Adrian, who had approached that altar for the celebration of Mass to pray for the Church, that the Lord might protect her. He “had power over fire,” that is, to impose the penalty of excommunication and its aggravation, for every penalty is sometimes designated by the name of fire.
“And he cried with a loud voice,” that is, with great affection he besought Charles to bring him aid: “Send your sharp sickle,” namely your army, “to gather the clusters,” that is, to deprive the Lombards of their power, “because the grapes are ripe,” that is, because they are worthy of destruction.
“And the angel,” namely Charlemagne, “sent his sickle,” that is, his army, “upon the earth and gathered the vineyard,” that is, took away the power of the Lombards, “and cast it into the great winepress of God’s wrath,” for he took the king captive with his wife and sent them into exile outside their own land.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
“And blood came out from the bodies of those killed,” because in the capture of the city of Pavia, where the king also was, many Lombards were killed, “up to the bridles of the horses.” The bridles of the horses of Charles’s soldiers were reddened by the blood of the slain, “for one thousand six hundred stadia.”
The fame of this victory of Charles was spread far and wide, namely through the four parts of the world signified by that number, because the said number is a square. A number is called square when it arises by multiplying its root-number by itself.
“And I saw another sign.” In chapter 15, after the announced destruction of the Lombards, the persecution by several persecutors of the Church is set forth.
He says, “I saw another sign,” that is, something signifying a future event, “great and wonderful: seven angels having seven plagues,” that is, power given by God to inflict such blows and tribulations, “the last,” not absolutely, but with respect to the past, “because in them the wrath of God is consummated,” that is, through them God’s vengeance upon the wicked is put into effect.
“And I saw.” Here divine praise is described. Although it followed the blows upon the wicked, it is placed here before their execution. Because the saints in heaven foresee those blows and rejoice before they come into effect, John says: “I saw as it were a sea of glass,” that is, the Church militant, so called by reason of baptism, “mingled with fire,” namely the Holy Spirit, who is given in baptism.
“And those who overcame the beast,” that is, the nation of Saracens living beastly, “and his image,” that is, those resembling the Saracens in life, “and the number of his name,” that is, all unbelievers opposing Christ and the Church, “standing” through holiness of life, “having the harps of God.” By this are understood thanksgivings in God’s Church for the victories which follow against the wicked.
They were “singing the song of Moses and of the Lamb,” because the saints in heaven are from both Testaments, saying: “Great and wonderful are your works, O Lord,” because they attribute the aforesaid victories to divine power. “Just and true are your ways” in punishing the obstinate, and so forth.
“And after these things.” Here is set forth the execution of the aforesaid plagues. “Heaven was opened,” that is, the divine secret through their fulfillment in effect.
“And the seven angels came out,” that is, God’s messengers, who will be named afterward, “having seven plagues,” that is, the power to inflict seven punishments, “clothed with clean stone,” that is, with Christ, who is the clean cornerstone because he committed no sin, and clothed with him through imitation of his good works, “and girded around their breasts with golden crowns,” that is, with chastity of mind.
“And one of the four living creatures,” Mark the Evangelist according to some, or another saint from the principal patriarchs already deceased, “gave to the seven angels seven bowls,” that is, the power to punish the wicked according to divine ordinance.
“And the temple was filled with smoke,” and so forth. By this is designated divine condescension. “And no one was able to enter into the temple,” which is said because of reverence for the divine presence.
“And I heard a loud voice.” In chapter 16 the greatness of divine authority is denoted by the loud voice from the temple of divine glory, saying to the seven angels: “Go,” and so forth, namely to execute the divine commands concerning the punishment of the wicked.
It should be known that Constantine began to reign in the year of the Lord 742 [read: 741] and was exceedingly evil. As Sigebert says, he removed images of Christ and the saints from churches. He deprived of their patrimonies those who invoked the Mother of God, those who kept vigils in churches, those who lived religiously, and those who abstained from oaths and uncleanness, and he tortured them in many ways. He compelled monks and nuns to contract marriages. Many who avoided this were martyred.
Afterward, when Irene, wife of Leo, was ruling with her son Constantine, Pope Adrian, at the urging of the patriarch of Constantinople, assembled a synod at Nicaea. Their rule began in the year of the Lord 783 [read: 780]. At that synod the heresy of those who detested images of Christ and the saints was condemned, because the images are the books of laypeople and move them to devotion, as is found in On Consecration, Distinction 3, Venerabiles.
The synod also condemned the Felician heresy, which posited a double filiation of God in Christ: a true filiation in the divine nature and an adoptive filiation in the human. From this it follows that there are two persons in Christ, as the heresiarch Nestorius said, and that the Virgin Mary is not the mother of God but only of a man.
These heresies have a likeness to Muhammad’s faithlessness, for the Saracens detest images and say that Jesus, son of the Virgin Mary, is a mere man.
What is said, therefore—“And the first angel departed”—is understood of Adrian, a holy and good man. “And he poured out his bowl upon the earth,” casting the sentence of excommunication upon earthly people who held the aforesaid heresy, “and there was made a grievous and most evil wound.” A spiritual plague, namely excommunication, is worse than a temporal one.
It fell “upon the men who had the mark of the beast,” that is, a way of life resembling Muhammad’s, “and those who worshiped his image,” namely the princes resembling Muhammad, to whom they referred honor.
“And the second angel.” Here the second plague is set forth. This angel was Charlemagne, who at that time fought against the Saxons. They are designated here by the sea because of the multitude of that people, for, as is said below, “Many waters are many peoples”; and also because the Saxons, crossing the seas, afflicted several lands of the Christians.
Therefore it says: “And the second angel,” that is, Charlemagne, “poured out his bowl upon the sea,” that is, exercised his vengeance upon the Saxons, “and blood was made as the blood of a dead man,” because many Saxons were killed.
But because some of the survivors, seeing that Charles’s victory had been accomplished by God’s power, received baptism, it does not say simply that the blood of a dead man was made, but “as the blood of a dead man.” The rest, who remained obstinate, were killed. In one day Charles caused four thousand five hundred of them to be beheaded. Therefore it follows: “Every living soul died in the sea.” Those captured alive who remained obstinate in Saxon unbelief were killed.
“And the third angel.” This too is understood of Charlemagne, but after he had been made emperor, whereas what was said of the second angel is understood of the same Charles before he assumed the empire. He reigned over the Franks for thirty-three years and afterward held the empire for thirteen years.
In the third year of his empire he entirely defeated the Huns, who had afflicted and laid waste many Christian lands, according to Sigebert’s chronicle, and subjected those who remained to the faith.
Therefore it is said: “The third angel,” that is, Charles after he had been made emperor, “poured out his bowl,” that is, God’s vengeance, “upon the rivers and upon the fountains of waters,” that is, upon the Avars or Huns. They are named rivers and fountains because they first dwelt beside the Maeotian marshes, where there are many surgings of water like fountains.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 177.]
Believing those marshes impassable, they did not dare to cross. But after learning that they were passable, they crossed them and defeated the Goths who dwelt beyond those marshes in Scythia. Elated by that victory, under King Attila they laid waste other lands as far as Gaul with fire and sword.
“And blood was made,” because Charles’s army killed many of those Huns.
“And I heard the angel.” It should be known that good angels from the order of Principalities are assigned to various kingdoms and nations to procure the good of the kingdom entrusted to them. They appear to resist one another when the nations entrusted to them oppose and wage war against one another, before they know the determination of the divine will concerning the future subjection or preeminence of one nation or another, as appears in Daniel 10.
But when they know the divine will through revelation or through the event’s occurrence, they harmoniously approve the divine sentence and execute it.
Therefore it says: “I heard the angel of the waters,” that is, of the Huns signified by the waters, saying: “You are just,” and so forth, approving the divine sentence concerning the defeat of the nation entrusted to him, “because they shed the blood of your saints.” Before the Huns were defeated, they killed many Christians. “And you have given them blood to drink,” punishing them with a similar punishment.
“And I heard another,” namely the angel of the Franks, saying: “Even so, Lord.” Both angels approved the divine sentence, namely the angel of the Franks and the angel of the Huns.
“And the fourth angel.” Although some expound this of Crescentius, a Roman patrician who deposed a Pope Gregory—not the first but another—and caused a man of no merit named John to be installed in his place, it is better expounded of Pope Leo.
Leo, a holy man, was attacked by the Romans and blinded; his tongue was also cut out. When his tongue and sight had been divinely restored, he sent to Charles seeking aid.
Therefore it says: “And the fourth angel,” that is, Pope Leo, a holy man, “poured out his bowl upon the sun,” announcing the bitterness of his spirit to the emperor Charles because he had been unjustly and contemptuously treated against God in this way and cast from his see.
Charles is called the sun because, just as the sun surpasses the other planets in brilliance, so Charles surpassed the other kings of the earth in faith and magnanimity.
“And it was given to him to afflict men with heat,” because, with power given him by God, he went to Rome, examined the causes, gravely afflicted and punished those rebelling against God and the Church, and again placed Pope Leo in his see, as is found in Sigebert’s chronicle.
“And the men,” namely the wicked, “were scorched with great heat” of pain and anger because they could not resist Charles, “and they blasphemed the name of the Lord,” namely those who remained obstinate and died in their sins.
“And the fifth angel.” Here is set forth the fifth plague, in which John returns to the persecution carried out by the Saracens and their punishment.
Although some expound this of the emperor Otto, who restored to his see the Gregory expelled by Crescentius and expelled the intruded John, it is better expounded of the Saracens, as Helinand writes.
When the patriarch of Jerusalem, expelled from the city, sought assistance from the emperor Charles, announcing to him the division of the Holy Land, Charles gathered an army greater than he had ever possessed and proceeded to the Holy Land. Finding unbelievers there, he killed some and put others to flight, restored the patriarch to his see, and returned to his own land.
Therefore it says: “And the fifth angel,” that is, the patriarch of Jerusalem, “poured out his bowl,” that is, Charles, who was God’s instrument for punishing Muhammad’s nation, “upon the seat of the beast,” that is, upon Muhammad’s nation living beastly. The patriarch is said to have poured out this bowl because he invited Charles to punish the contempt shown toward God and the Church.
“And his kingdom,” namely Muhammad’s, “became dark,” because some Saracens were killed and others shamefully expelled from there. “And they gnawed their tongues for pain.” It is the custom of an angry and afflicted person to bite his lips and gnash his teeth as though chewing his tongue.
“And they blasphemed the God of heaven” through impatience, and also because the Saracens say that Christ is a mere man and thus blasphemed. “And they did not repent,” but died in their faithlessness.
“And the sixth angel.” Here is set forth the sixth plague.
Some expound this of Pope Gregory, who was first called Hildebrand and presided over the Church during the reign of Henry IV, who began to reign in the year of the Lord 1057 [read: 1056]. Dissension arose between Henry and Pope Gregory because Gregory excommunicated everyone elected in the Church who received investiture by ring and staff from the hand of a layman, although kings and emperors had previously exercised such power. On this reading the sixth angel would be this Pope Gregory.
But it can be expounded otherwise, and better, of Charlemagne. Invited by blessed James, he cleared the way to his previously unknown tomb, because all Spain had formerly been occupied by the Saracens, including Gascony and Navarre.
With much labor Charles partly killed the Saracens in these regions and nations, partly put them to flight, and partly subjected them to the Christian faith, their affliction giving them understanding.
This is what follows: “And the sixth angel,” that is, blessed James, “poured out his bowl,” that is, the power of Charlemagne, whom he invited to punish the Saracen nation, which is called “the great river” because of the multitude of that great people, “and dried up its water,” taking away the Saracens’ power, “that the way might be prepared for the kings,” that is, the pilgrims of Saint James, among whom were and are many kings, princes, and powerful men.
Hence Charles himself devoutly visited that place. The sepulcher of blessed James is in the western part of the habitable earth, and therefore the way to come to it is from the rising of the sun absolutely for those who come from the east, or relatively for those coming from the north and south.
“And I saw.” Here the seventh plague is set forth.
Concerning this it should be known that from the time of Khosrow, king of the Persians, the Catholic people in and around the Promised Land were for the most part in affliction and harsh servitude until their liberation by the western Christian princes in the time of Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine.
The other liberations of that land accomplished by Heraclius and Charlemagne, of which he spoke above, were almost momentary, because they passed away quickly. When Heraclius withdrew from Jerusalem, the Arabs under Omar subjected the Holy Land and several other regions. Likewise, after Charlemagne withdrew from Jerusalem, the Saracens ruling in Egypt subjected Judea to themselves.
Afterward the Turks took Judea from the hand of the Egyptian caliph and held it until they were defeated by the aforesaid princes in the region of Antioch. Then, when the strength of the Turks had been weakened, the Egyptians took Jerusalem and Judea from the Turks’ hands. But within a year or thereabouts the Christians took it from the Egyptians by force of arms.
It should also be noted that, just as among Christians there are preachers who exert themselves to wage war against the Saracens, so among the Saracens are certain learned men who incite them against Christians. Foreseeing this, John says:
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
“And I saw coming from the mouth of the dragon,” that is, of the supreme prince in the Persian kingdom, “and from the mouth of the beast,” that is, of the caliph or supreme prince in Egypt, “and from the mouth of the false prophet,” that is, of the preachers who incite the Saracens against the Christians, “three unclean spirits,” that is, the words of prophets, teachers, and even princes.
They are called unclean spirits because they lead us to the uncleanness of sin, “like frogs,” for by their croaking they disturb others. “For they are the spirits of demons,” because demons incite them to this, “working signs.” Even among the faithful, demons are sometimes permitted by God’s just judgment to perform signs.
Those who write the histories of the lands beyond the sea say that after Muhammad’s death the Saracens were divided into two sects. One part established its seat in Egypt and the other in the Persian kingdom. They were divided not only by place but also on certain points of their law, so that each group called the other subversives and schismatics. There was contention and war between them until the time of Saladin, who began to reign in the year of the Lord 1179, long after the liberation of the Holy Land by the princes mentioned above.
Saladin induced the Saracens dwelling in Egypt to observe the ceremonies of those living in Persia and brought them back into concord. Hence the words here, “Gather them for battle,” are not to be understood as gathering all at once but successively “unto the great day,” and so forth, which can be sufficiently understood from the foregoing.
“And the seventh angel.” In chapter 17 the persecution of the seventh plague is described.
It should be known that some expositors said that this seventh angel was Alexius, the emperor of Constantinople, who wrote to Pope Urban concerning the recovery of the Holy Land. But this does not appear right, because Alexius was deceitful and plotted against the Latins.
It seems better to others that the angel was a certain Peter the Hermit. Moved by devotion, he visited those holy places and spoke with the Catholics living in that region about recovering the Holy Land. He induced them to appeal to Pope Urban for that enterprise. Peter the Hermit presented their letters, went to Pope Urban, and urged the same thing.
After Urban had celebrated a general council in Gaul at Clermont and issued several statutes, in the year of the Lord 1095 he encouraged faithful princes to recover the Holy Land, soliciting lords everywhere for that work through the said Peter the Hermit.
Many Catholics from France, Spain, England, Germany, Italy, and other regions affixed the cross to their shoulders. With one mind they intended to assist the Christians held in servitude in those parts.
Thus this seventh angel, Peter the Hermit, “poured out his bowl into the air,” because with effective words he explained the misery of the Holy Land. “And a loud voice came out of the temple,” that is, the Church, “from the throne,” that is, by the authority of the supreme pontiff, saying, “It is done,” that is, the petition of the Christian people dwelling in Jerusalem has been heard.
“And there were made lightnings,” namely visions and signs, “voices and thunders,” namely the preaching of the cross, “and there was made a great earthquake,” that is, a great movement among peoples leaving their own lands to bring aid to the said place, “such as never had been,” and so forth.
As is said in William’s chronicles, never had so many nations come together in one resolve. The number surpassed human estimation, although it was reckoned at six million.
“And the great city was made.” This great city was that army, for with one mind they advanced in three parts. For the sake of finding lodging and provisions, one part followed Peter the Hermit; another army followed the principal prince, joining Godfrey the duke; and a third went with Bohemond, duke of Apulia, by ship.
“And the cities of the nations,” that is, of the Saracens, “fell,” because from Nicaea of Bithynia and Antioch, which are in the Persian kingdom, as far as Jerusalem and the River of Egypt, cities held by unbelievers were subjugated by that army.
“And great Babylon,” that is, the Saracen sect, full of confusion in its laws and rites, “came into remembrance before God,” namely to be punished by him. “And all the islands fled,” that is, the Saracens properly dwelling upon islands fled by sea, “and great hail like a talent,” that is, a war unbearable to the Saracens.
“And one came.” Here the seventh plague is described more particularly, according to the opinion of those who say that all this text from the present point to the passage around the middle of chapter 20, “When the thousand years shall be finished,” was fulfilled in the past. According to this view the text will be expounded as far as that passage; afterward I shall say what seems to me about it.
According to their opinion, therefore, this angel was not the emperor Alexius, as some say, nor Peter the Hermit, but rather blessed James the Apostle. Triumphing in heaven, he revealed this to John, saying: “Come, and I will show you the condemnation of the great harlot,” that is, of the Saracen sect, “who sits upon the waters,” and rules many peoples, “with whom the kings of the earth committed fornication,” because many kings received the laws of Muhammad, “and were made drunk,” and so forth.
“And he carried me away,” says John, “into the wilderness,” namely to see the state of the Saracens, abandoned by God because of their sins. “And I saw a woman sitting upon a beast,” that is, the sect of the Turks and Saracens living beastly and effeminately, “scarlet,” reddened with the blood of Christians, “full of names of blasphemy,” because they say that Christ is a mere man and that the Virgin Mary is not the mother of God, “having seven heads and ten horns,” as was expounded above.
Or the seven heads and ten horns are the seven capital vices and the transgression of the Ten Commandments belonging to peoples of this sort. The woman had “a golden cup,” that is, teaching sweet to the flesh.
Everything that follows throughout this chapter is expounded of the Saracens and Turks who usurped Judea and Syria successively and were afterward expelled from there by Christians in Godfrey’s time. Syria and Judea were first possessed by the Egyptians, but the Turks took them away. Later the Egyptians recovered them after expelling the Turks. This variation of the kingdom is noted here.
The words in the following chapter, chapter 18, which begins “After these things I saw another angel,” are expounded by some concerning Abdamarus [read: Adhemar], bishop of Le Puy, a man of English purity [read: a man of angelic purity]. In the army of the western Christian princes he undertook the office of papal legate to direct the Christian armies.
They expound “descending from heaven” as proceeding from the height of the Apostolic See, and “having great power” in spiritual matters because he was a legate from the pope’s side.
[Running head: Chapter One. Folio 178.]
“And the earth,” that is, the Christian army, “was illuminated by his glory,” namely his life and teaching. “And he cried out with a loud voice,” preaching by word and example: “Great Babylon has fallen, has fallen,” that is, the Saracen nation. He says “has fallen” twice because they were twice defeated by Christians, first by Charlemagne and afterward by Godfrey. What follows in the text is expounded of the defeat of the Saracen nation.
“After these things I heard a loud voice saying, Alleluia.” In chapter 19 John sets forth the thanksgiving made in the Church militant for the defeat of the Saracens and the exaltation of the Christians. In the Church triumphant also, the saints give thanks to God for the benefits conferred upon the faithful in the present life.
When John wished to worship the angel who showed him these things, the angel forbade him, saying: “See that you do not do it,” and so forth. After the Incarnation of the Word, angels dread being venerated by human nature, which they see united to the Word and raised above themselves. “Worship God” with the worship of latria.
What is afterward said, “And I saw heaven opened,” means that what was closed to us in God’s foreknowledge was revealed to John.
“And behold, a white horse” is expounded of the kingdom of Jerusalem, made white by the holiness of the Christians who dwelt there after Godfrey captured it and was established as the first king there.
“And he who sat upon it,” and so forth. This was Baldwin, who succeeded his brother Godfrey in the said kingdom of Jerusalem and immediately began to enlarge that kingdom by conquering the Saracens, in the year of the Lord 1100. “His eyes,” and so forth, describe his qualities.
Where it says later, “I saw one angel,” and so forth, John notes a certain great victory which the aforesaid Baldwin had against the Saracens in the fifth year of his reign. When the sultan, king of Egypt, gathered a very great army and came against the Christians to recover the lost Holy Land, Baldwin with a few men gained victory and inflicted a great slaughter upon the Saracens.
The words from “And I saw an angel,” and so forth, in this chapter 20 as far as the passage “When the thousand years shall be finished,” are expounded by some of Pope Calixtus and the emperor Henry V.
Compelled by the pope under threat of anathema, Henry renounced the custom used by emperors for three hundred years and more, namely of investing bishops and abbots by staff and ring. That power had been granted to him under Pope Adrian in a council held at Rome, as is found in Sigebert’s chronicle.
Hence they expound: “I saw an angel,” that is, Pope Calixtus, “having the key of the bottomless pit,” that is, the power to excommunicate, “and a great chain,” that is, the multitude of cardinals and prelates; “and he seized the dragon,” that is, the Roman emperor, “and bound him” through ecclesiastical censure so that he should no longer exercise such power, “for a thousand years,” namely until the time of Antichrist. A determinate number is placed for an indeterminate one.
Yet, according to Nicholas of Lyra, a better exposition is that of those who say this angel was Pope Innocent III, who approved the Orders of Preachers and Minors in the year of the Lord 1200. Through their teaching and examples the Church was in a certain manner renewed and the power of demons restrained.
Therefore it says: “I saw an angel,” namely Pope Innocent, “descending from heaven,” that is, condescending from the height of the pontificate to Dominic and Francis, “having the key of the bottomless pit,” that is, the power to approve the said orders for restraining the power of demons, “and a great chain,” that is, the multiplication of the friars of those orders.
“And he seized the dragon,” because through their teaching and life the power of the devil was restrained and will be restrained until the time of Antichrist, which is signified by the thousand years. At the time of Antichrist, however, he will be released and given power to rage more fiercely, but for a short time.
As to what is said afterward, “And I saw thrones,” and so forth, some expound it of Saladin’s persecution; but it seems better expounded of the Tartars, who came out from their land in the year of the Lord 1211 and killed many peoples, both Christians and pagans.
Nicholas of Lyra says, however, that this exposition from chapter 17 to the present passage appears to him improper, that is, forced, and in many respects he disproves it.
For example, it has been said concerning the Saracen nation signified by Babylon that it was destroyed temporally, although it is now more vigorous and possesses Jerusalem with those regions. Again, things commonly expounded by the doctors concerning Christ are understood of Baldwin, such as: “He has a written name which no one knows but he himself”; “his name is the Word of God”; and “he has written upon his thigh, King of kings.”
Again, according to the said exposition, what is written in the three aforesaid chapters was fulfilled two hundred years and more ago, while the text immediately following is commonly expounded by all of the time of Antichrist.
It does not seem fitting that John should have written nothing about events concerning the state of the Church during so great an interval, when Antichrist’s coming does not appear near, especially since the doctors commonly say that in this book John wrote noteworthy events concerning the Church down to the end of the world.
For these and other things which can be said against the aforesaid exposition, it appears to me—subject to a better judgment—that this entire text from chapter 17 to the present passage has not yet been fulfilled.
Because I am neither a prophet nor the son of a prophet, I do not wish to say anything about future things except what can be drawn from Holy Scripture or from holy and authoritative doctors.
It can also be added to what Nicholas says that the exposition made concerning the seven seals, the seven angels sounding trumpets, and the seven angels pouring out their bowls—although it is a pure accommodation and the historical events described were truly fulfilled—leaves it uncertain to us whether John the Evangelist understood those events which were expounded or others.
Thus Hugh the Cardinal expounds all these things morally rather than literally.
“And when the thousand years shall be finished,” and so forth. Here is described the persecution of Antichrist, of which Sacred Scripture and the holy doctors speak in many places.
By Gog, which is interpreted “covered,” Antichrist is understood, for he will be covered, that is, a dwelling of Satan. By Magog, which is interpreted “uncoverer,” are understood those adhering to Antichrist, his followers. “And he shall gather them together for battle,” that is, against the assembly of the faithful.
“And I saw a throne.” After John has described the Church’s general persecution preceding the judgment, he here sets forth the judgment itself. Then, in the following chapter, chapter 21, he describes the state of the Church triumphant after the judgment, when he says:
“And I saw a new heaven and a new earth,” because after the judgment all things will be renewed for the better, not by a change of substance but in the quality of the heavens and elements, in brightness and other such qualities. All of this will yield to the glory of the blessed.
“And I saw the holy city Jerusalem,” that is, the society of the elect united by perfect charity, “new” with respect to the glorification of bodies. Because this will occur through the glory of souls overflowing into bodies, he adds, “descending from heaven,” for the souls will descend from heaven to reassume their bodies and appear in the judgment. Those bodies will be impassible, bright, agile, and subtle.
[Running head: Sixth Title.]
The holy city is “prepared by God” with the gifts of the soul, namely vision, possession, and fruition, and with the aforesaid gifts of the body. Hence it follows: “As a bride adorned for her husband.”
Describing the final consummation with respect to the elect, John says: “I heard a loud voice from the throne,” namely of the divine majesty, saying in effect: “Behold the tabernacle of God with men,” that is, God’s inseparable dwelling with blessed human beings, because they will always possess him as present through open vision.
By this every evil of guilt and punishment is excluded. Hence it follows: “And death shall be no more,” and so forth, neither of soul nor of body as regards the blessed, for as regards the wicked there will be death without death.
“And the one who sat upon the throne,” namely through the effect of the work, “said”—God, three and one—“Behold, I make all things new,” namely the heavens, the elements, and the bodies of the saints.
“And he said to me: Write,” namely for the instruction of the Church militant. “It is done,” that is, the joy of the blessed is consummated.
“I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end.” God is the beginning of all effects because all things proceed from him, and the end to which all things are ordered.
“To the one who thirsts,” that is, desires in a due manner, “I will give freely from the fountain of living water,” namely a participation in the blessed life, because no one merits the first grace.
“He who overcomes,” namely the flesh, the world, and the devil, “shall possess these things” by perpetual inheritance. “And I will be his God,” namely by giving glory, “and he shall be my son” through assimilation.
“But the fearful,” namely those who through worldly fear decline into mortal sins and die in them; “and the unbelieving,” such as Jews, Saracens, heretics, and other unbelievers; “and the abominable,” those returning to enormous sins; “and poisoners,” that is, evildoers and sorcerers; “and liars,” namely through pernicious falsehood; and those guilty of other mortal vices: “their portion shall be in the lake of fire,” that is, their recompense in the Gehenna of hell.
Afterward John describes more particularly the magnificence of the heavenly Jerusalem and the names of the apostles written there. They will now be treated.