§1. The Romans did this, if any people anywhere did, according to Polybius. Moreover, they admirably rouse and incite young men to undertake dangers. For when an occasion for action presents itself and some of them have acted bravely or spiritedly, the commander summons all the forces to an assembly, places beside himself those who were the authors of an outstanding deed, and first recounts their praises, both for this deed and for anything else they have accomplished in their whole lives that is worthy of praise and remembrance. After this he presents a spear to the man who has wounded an enemy; to the man who has struck an enemy down and stripped him, however, he presents a bowl if he is an infantryman, and phalerae if he is a cavalryman—although in former times he presented only a spear. These rewards are received not by one who has wounded or stripped an enemy in a regular battle or in the storming of a city, but by those who, in a raid, a skirmish, or some such occasion in which there was no necessity for individual men to incur danger, have then, I say, exposed themselves to it of their own accord and voluntarily. Similarly, when a man has defended and saved a citizen or ally, the commander honors him with gifts, and the tribunes compel those who were saved—unless, indeed, they do it voluntarily—to crown their savior. The man who was saved thereafter honors him throughout his whole life as a parent and is obliged to offer and accord him all things just as if he had begotten him. By an incentive of this kind they incite to contest and rivalry amid dangers not only those who are present and hearing them face to face, but also those who remain at home. For men who have obtained gifts of this kind, besides their glory in the army and their reputation at home, enter games and processions conspicuously when they have returned to their country, since only those who have been presented with them by the commander on account of valor are permitted to wear and display these decorations. In the most conspicuous part of their houses they place the spoils as indications and testimonies of their valor. Accordingly, since such care and diligence were exercised in the camp concerning both rewards and punishments, their military successes were deservedly fortunate and illustrious. That which is of the greatest power in every state—reward and punishment—possesses universal power in military service. In these rewards, however, worth and honor reside. The following are enumerated.
The first reward: a public commendation by the commander, while the generals, tribunes, centurions, and entire army stand in a circle. This practice has now fallen into disuse, for Christians and more cultivated men are not captivated by such encomiums as rustic hearts are. Since, therefore, the danger would be equal for the timid man and the brave—indeed, greater for the timid, for the danger is always greatest to those who fear most—boldness serves as a wall. Honor, in addition, incited the brave.
The second: the hasta pura, or unheaded spear. Polybius calls it γαῖσον; it was a δόρυ ἀσίδηρον, “a spear without iron”:
You see that young man who leans upon an unheaded spear.
But why was it without iron? Because it was given for the sake of honor, not for fighting. This was the reward of the man who had struck down an enemy.
The third: the infantryman who struck down and stripped an enemy was presented with a bowl, the cavalryman with phalerae. In place of “bowl” Lipsius conjectures that ψέλιον, “armlets,” should be read. Phalerae, armlets, and torques were sometimes joined together. Am I mistaken in thinking that from this the Anakim too were formerly called Torquati, that is, wearers of torques?
The fourth: standards. In the Suda they are called ὑφάσματα, “woven fabrics,” although the word may also signify other textiles. In Vopiscus’s Aurelian we read that four two-colored standards were presented. After the naval victory Augustus presented Agrippa with a blue standard. Ribbons or insignia are still worn by soldiers and presented for the sake of honor; when frequently altered, they also deceive the enemy.
The fifth: various crowns. The civic crown was given to the man who had saved a citizen and killed an enemy; the siege crown, made of grass, when an army had been released from a siege; the mural crown to the man who had first mounted a wall; the camp crown to the man who had first mounted the enemy’s camp, and this was also called the vallary crown; the naval crown to the man who had first set fire to an enemy ship; and the rostral crown to the man who had gained some great distinction at sea. The civic crown was made of oak, the siege crown of grass, and the others of laurel. Other crowns of gold were also frequently given for other deeds. Sometimes these rewards were given to whole maniples.
The sixth: oxen. Thus Scipio presented Laelius with a golden crown and thirty oxen.
§2. These rewards were powerful not only through their worth and the honor attending them when they were given, but were also useful for the future. For, first, they formed a step toward more honorable and more lucrative military service. This is still observed altogether, except where military service has been corrupted. The rewards involved in promotions were immense. Vegetius, book 2, chapter 21. Alexander gave great rewards to those who contended—namely, chiliarchies. Alexander ab Alexandro, book 1, chapter 20.
They were carried in front in a triumph, and indeed always. Valerius, book 3, chapter 2, relates of Sicinius: “Having followed nine triumphal chariots of commanders, he turned the eyes of the entire citizen body upon himself by the numerous procession of his gifts. For there were carried before him eight golden crowns, fourteen civic crowns, three mural crowns, one siege crown, 183 torques, 160 armlets, eighteen spears, and twenty-five phalerae”—decorations numerous enough even for a legion, much more for one soldier.
They were displayed not only in a triumph but also in the review of the cavalry—indeed, even when a man stood in danger, as Manlius Capitolinus did. Livy, book 6: “He not only recalled the distinctions of war but also brought them forth to be seen: the spoils of as many as thirty slain enemies, as many as forty gifts from commanders, among which were two conspicuous mural crowns and eight civic crowns. In addition, he produced the citizens he had saved from the enemy, among whom Gaius Servilius, master of the cavalry, was named although absent. And when he had recounted also the things done in war, matching the grandeur of the achievements with magnificent words in his speech, he bared his breast, distinguished by scars received in war. Repeatedly looking toward the Capitol, he called Jupiter and the other gods down to the aid of his fortunes and prayed that they would give the Roman people in its hour of peril the same spirit which they had given him when he protected the Capitoline citadel for the safety of the Roman people. He entreated them, individually and collectively, to look upon the Capitol and the citadel and so turn to the immortal gods when they passed judgment concerning him.”
These rewards also opened an approach to public office. Livy, book 23: the senate was replenished from those who had been aediles, tribunes, or quaestors, or had received the civic crown. Finally, in the public games men attracted notice by relying upon their gifts.
Among us not only are insignia given, but men of the plebeian order are made knights and are presented with insignia and nobility. The lawful distribution of spoils also belongs among rewards.
Spoil is most advantageously divided equally, as was the custom among the Romans. Dionysius, book 7: “You all know that whatever spoils and booty we obtain from the enemy through our valor, the law commands all of it to be public property. Not only does a common soldier or any private person have no right to it; not even the commander himself does. Rather, the quaestor receives it, sells it, and deposits the money in the public treasury. Since we have inhabited this city, no one has—I will not say broken—but not even censured this law.” Lycurgus forbade soldiers to strip their enemies, lest a soldier become rich and abandon the fighting. This was entirely disadvantageous, because he took away an incentive to fight.
And Polybius, book 10: “The Romans have the following custom and system in the storming of towns. At one time they divide the forces each day according to the size of the city, at another time they distribute them by maniples, but in such a way that they never employ more than half for this work. The rest remain in their ranks as reserves, sometimes outside the city, sometimes within it, yet so that they are always kept visible. Since the forces are usually divided into two Roman legions and two allied wings—for rarely do all four legions assemble together—all who have been assigned to booty and plunder carry whatever they have acquired, each to his own legion or wing. When this has been done, the tribunes divide it equally among all, not only among those who were on guard or held in reserve, but also among those who guarded the camp, and likewise among the sick, the wounded, or those sent elsewhere upon some duty. As soon as they come into the camp to go to war, they all swear that they will neither defraud nor withhold anything from the spoil. I have spoken of this matter at greater length in what I have written about the state. Moreover, when half the soldiers scatter after spoil in this way, while half preserve their ranks and guard and support them, it never happens that the Roman imperils the supreme issue. For, because the hope of gain is assured equally to all, whether they remain or engage in plunder, no one deserts his place or rank—a thing which often tends to harm others.”
Citizens and allies shared the spoil in equal portions. This was done at that time; afterward it was changed, and the soldier was incited by the desire for spoil. At present it can scarcely be done otherwise, since there are such diverse nations in a single army.