§1. The plan of Themistocles formerly, and afterward of Pompey the Great, was that particular account should be taken of fleets; for all things are possessed by him who holds the sea.
Hence the Romans always prepared a great fleet—or, rather, had one. Vegetius, book 5, chapter 1:
“The Roman people, however, in keeping with the dignity and advantage of their greatness, did not prepare a fleet for the occasion because of the necessity of some disturbance; but, lest they should ever sustain such a necessity, they always kept one prepared. For no one dares to provoke by war or inflict injury upon a kingdom or people whom he knows to be equipped and ready to resist and avenge. At Misenum, therefore, and Ravenna, individual legions stood with the fleets, so that they would not withdraw too far from the protection of the city and, when circumstances demanded it, might arrive by sea without delay and without a circuitous route at every part of the world. For the fleet at Misenum had Gaul, the Spains, Mauretania, Africa, Egypt, Sardinia, and Sicily close at hand. The fleet at Ravenna, however, was accustomed to seek Epirus, Macedonia, Achaea, the Propontis, Pontus, the East, Crete, and Cyprus by a direct voyage.”
Dominion of the sea, therefore, contributes very greatly to power. The Spaniards say that a kingdom without a port is like an oven without fire. And indeed it has appeared in the case of Portugal, a kingdom not great, how by dominion of the sea the Portuguese occupied the Indies and preserve them even today. Lipsius counts more fleets in On Roman Greatness, book 1, chapter 5. He thinks that there were four upon the sea and three upon rivers.
§2. Vegetius demands the greatest care in building ships, because it is more dangerous for a ship to be defective than for a house. “The Liburnian,” he says in book 5, chapter 4, “is constructed from cypress and from domestic and wild pine, larch, and especially fir, and should more advantageously be fastened with bronze nails than with iron ones. For although the expenditure may appear somewhat heavy, nevertheless, because it lasts longer, it is proved to bring profit. For rust quickly consumes iron nails through time and moisture, whereas bronze nails preserve their own substance even amid the waves.” Timber must be cut from the fifteenth day of the moon through the twenty-third. It can be cut from the summer solstice until January.
Ships were of various kinds in former times. The largest had six banks of rowers or more, as Vegetius says; but he is speaking of the ordinary form of ships, for from the ship which is drawn by one bank of rowers they advanced as far as fifteen and sixteen banks of rowers. But biremes, triremes, and quadriremes were commonly used; they have that many banks of oars, rowers, and benches in each order. Indeed, when the Romans first took up maritime affairs, they thought the construction of quinqueremes difficult. Later, however, Antony and Augustus erected high fighting-towers upon their ships. Antony even had δεκήρεις, deciremes, as Dio records. Alexander the Great had twelve banks, as Pliny is the authority.
Ptolemy Philadelphus had two ships of thirty banks, one of twenty, four of thirteen, two of twelve, and fourteen of eleven; thirty hepteres, five hexeres, and seventeen quinqueremes. Great also, and like a town, was the ship of Ptolemy Philopator. It had forty banks; its length was two hundred eighty cubits and its height thirty-eight. There were four hundred sailors in it, four thousand rowers, and nearly three thousand soldiers; it had seven beaks and four rudders. Yet all these things were more for display than for use. For so great a multitude could neither live conveniently nor discharge its duties.
§3. Most approve smaller and more agile ships, because they are driven even by a lighter wind and do not strike upon sandbanks so easily. In the battle against Austria the Turkish ships discharged harmless missiles, because their prows were much higher. But nevertheless, if we wish to confess the truth, Augustus against Sextus Pompey and Antony used high fighting-towers upon their ships. And the six large Christian ships which, in front of the half-moon formation of our fleet, tore apart the hostile fleet won the victory for the Christians against the Turks in great part.
It is entirely necessary to observe the warnings of storms and obey them, for more fleets have perished by storm than by battle. When you have foreseen everything, one can still perish from thirst in the midst of water. Therefore provision must also be made concerning water.
If you are going to fight at sea, you will be able to advance first into the battle-line; for soldiers already prepared will be able to rest and take food. Nor are they wearied as in a land battle, yet they cannot fight unless the enemy approaches. Timotheus, commander of the Athenians, sent twenty very swift ships against the enemy to make sport of them. These wearied the enemy; afterward he himself cut them down when they were weary.
§4. Naval forces must be trained with enormous care, so that they become accustomed to pull the oars, direct the helm, cast and recover anchors, arrange ropes, spread and contract sails, turn ships, angle the sails, climb the mast, and keep watch from the fighting-top. Finally, they must be fearless before every danger; for, besides the common evils of war, the waters themselves and sea-monsters supply sufficient terror. Then there are the conflicts of winds, shoals, Euripi, whirlpools, tides, bays, promontories, rocks, sandbanks, and that which is especially pleasing to spectators, the stillness of the sea, or dead calm itself.
At night they signal everything to one another more easily by fires. The admiral’s ship and vice-admiral’s ship always carry a fire before them; but when the latter is present, the admiral’s ship displays two, and all imitate this arrangement so that they do not collide through proximity. When a whirlwind arises, a signal is given twice with a great cannon that the ships need not follow the admiral’s ship. They also have commands consigned in writing stating the place in which they ought to assemble if they are dispersed. If enemies appear at night, the ship that notices them gives the signal. A watchword for the ships is also given with great care. At sunset, and likewise at sunrise, all the ships come to salute the commander upon the admiral’s ship. They receive the watchword in the evening; but if they are hindered by a storm, every captain has the watchwords for the whole week written down and distributes them.
Nothing is more dangerous than a naval battle, for the sea itself is an enemy: ships are easily pierced and burned; one must leap onto enemy ships and fight there. The ships themselves are sometimes entangled with one another and impede one another, and a conquered ship drags the victorious ship with it.
The order of naval battle generally is that the admiral’s ship is in the middle, and the larger ships are joined to it, while the smaller hold the wings. I understand this to apply unless the enemy has stronger ships upon the sides. Great care must be taken that those ships which first receive the wind are strong, for the strongest can make the assault. They advance in an even order; the lighter ships regulate their sails so that they are not carried more swiftly than the heavier.
The enemy is harmed chiefly in two ways: by cannon and by grappling-irons, by which vessels are joined together. Formerly they did not have cannon with which to tear vessels apart, but drove the ships’ beaks at speed into their sides. Now the method is different, for those who most quickly and skillfully thunder upon enemy ships, and who can strike mast, yards, or rudder, generally emerge victorious. Formerly they fought especially with fire: Cassius sent burning transports into the enemy fleet and set it on fire; Gnaeus Scipio hurled jars filled with pitch and pinewood upon enemy ships; Hannibal hurled vipers.
Against smaller firearms they protect themselves with thick planks, and sometimes with a double barrier of ropes one foot apart. Meanwhile they struggle with great disadvantages, whether while they fight with ships joined and fastened together, or while they cast the enemy’s fires upon a ship; for at the same time they themselves too are endangered, lest they be burned together. Every noncombatant throng should be employed in repairing ships and caring for the wounded. The danger is increased by the fact that, when it comes to hand-to-hand combat, one ship attacks one, or two attack one; and thus there are at once as many battle-lines as ships.
§5. With the same wind a fleet advances more slowly—even when the ships are the same—than individual ships do separately. Therefore, when departure is necessary, a commander will prepare himself for a longer voyage than a merchant will.
When a maritime battle is to be fought, a flag is displayed from the admiral’s ship. If a ship appears from elsewhere, the ship nearest to it suspends one flag; if two appear, it suspends two, and warns the commander of the fleet.
When scout ships judge that something is seen by them, if the commander wishes them to advance and investigate it better, he suspends a flag at the prow. Indeed, many things are indicated at sea by flags, because sight extends for the greatest distance across the water, whereas in fields it is impeded by thickets and other things.
When a ship has struck something or is stuck upon sandbanks, it fires a cannon three times, and someone requests assistance from the fighting-top by waving a flag. If a hostile ship secretly enters the fleet for the purpose of spying and there is suspicion of the matter, a flag of a certain or variegated color, such as all the ships possess, is raised from the admiral’s ship. Since the spy ship cannot do this, it is immediately detected; it could nevertheless remain hidden if it had previously been informed about the kind of those flags.
§6. A fleet requires many more things than a land army; for the arms of fleets must be furnished in such a way that they can also fight upon land and besiege cities. Ranzovius recounts that many things were present in the Spanish fleet. He says in book 1, chapter 8:
“This fleet was assembled from 130 ships and carried 57,868 units of weight, or what they call lasts; 19,295 marines; 8,052 sailors and rowers; 2,441 larger cannon; 123,090 balls, or cannon-shot; 5,175 hundredweights of gunpowder; 1,238 hundredweights of lead; and 1,151 hundredweights of fire-kindling. There was, besides, an enormous supply of fresh water, wooden dishes, lamps, larger and smaller lanterns, likewise nails and oxhide, and a great quantity of flax and tow for stopping and repairing ships which opened at the seams or were pierced; also shields, many wax tapers, tallow candles, and rather long sacks.
“In addition, all those things were present which serve for moving the larger cannon: 40 mules, lower wagons, wheels, and other things of that kind; and, among other things, equipment sufficient for landing twenty of those greater wheeled cannon which they call cartauns. With these were also conveyed twenty-one of another kind, which, from the use that they render especially in the open field, are called field serpentines or culverins, and 3,500 balls with which these might be loaded.
“As for the smaller weapons, the fleet was abundantly equipped with them. There were at hand 7,000 longer handguns; 1,000 forked guns bent toward the stock, together with their requirements; 10,000 long shafts; 1,000 javelins and double axes; 6,000 shorter spears; and many other things prudently prepared, with which, if circumstances permitted, a land battle could be entered against the enemy and towns besieged and captured. At the same time there were present 700 miners, more than sufficiently equipped with their apparatus for use in driving mines.
“The number of all the persons for whose provisions provision had been made was 30,693. Of this class were hired soldiers, bold musketeers, physicians, surgeons, chaplains, monks, noblemen, and the other attendants of the fleet’s supreme commander, judges, sailors, rowers, cooks, and similar persons necessary for the equipment of the fleet. For their sustenance for six months these provisions were held: 11,000 hundredweights of baked bread; 21,255 amphorae of wine; 6,000 hundredweights of salted meat; 3,433 hundredweights of cheeses; 8,000 hundredweights of salted provisions; 3,000 hundredweights of rice; 6,320 hundredweights of beans and vetch; 11,398 bath-measures of oil; 13,687 of vinegar in the same measure; and 11,870 pipes filled with drinking water.
“It was also learned from Spaniards whom the English captured that 12,000 ducats were spent each day to maintain the fleet, and that, in addition, a great quantity of gold and silver was conveyed upon the admiral’s ships for the support of the war; but that ten thousand cannon-shots were discharged by the hostile English fleet against the fleet itself.”
For the Danish fleet he gives this equipment of the admiral’s ship: 100 gunners skilled in loading and discharging the larger cannon; 500 sailors; 700 marines; 20 whole and half cartauns; 14 whole serpentines or culverins; 14 three-quarter serpentines; 4 half serpentines; 15 falcons; 2 bronze fire-projectors; 8 tower-breakers or wall-mounted phalaricae; 8 Tyrian rams; 8 grappling-irons or hooks; 68 machines which they call Barssen; 100 hooked machines; 10 units of weight, or lasts, of gunpowder; besides lead, balls, and fuses or fire-kindling in great number.
Provisions were assigned to this same admiral’s ship for six months’ sustenance: 7,400 sides of bacon; 3,143 pieces of beef; 6,248 quarters of mutton; 6,248 smoked geese; 30 units of weight, or lasts, of butter; 60 lasts of pickled herring; 60 lasts of smaller cod; 1,480 wagonloads of stockfish or hake; 4 lasts of salted pike; 4 lasts of salted eel; 4,000 sea albicae; 8,000 dried sea-scallops or flatfish; 8 bundles of long cod; 8 bundles of larger cod or capitones; 24½ lasts of oats prepared for human food; 24 lasts of vetch; 402 lasts of bread; 700 lasts of beer; 4 lasts of Lüneburg salt; 10 lasts of coarse foreign salt; and 4 lasts of vinegar.
When ships are lacking, it is customary to detain merchant vessels after the price of carriage has been paid. The kings of Spain and Denmark are accustomed to do this; in this matter one must act so that justice is observed in all things.
Nevertheless, the care of provisions should come first.
οὐ γάρ τι στυγερῇ ἐπὶ γαστέρι κύντερον ἄλλο
ἔπλετο, ἥ τ’ ἐκέλευσεν ἕο μνήσασθαι ἀνάγκῃ
καὶ μάλα τειρόμενον καὶ ἐνὶ φρεσὶ πένθος ἔχοντα.
Nothing else more shameless than the hateful belly comes upon a man, since it of necessity commands him to remember it, even if he is sorrowful and turns grief over in his mind.
In an army this evil is more grievous, because a soldier driven to corrupt and foul foods contracts plague and other diseases; and because he grows weak, his spirits fail and he becomes timid.
In order that provisions may be held, it will be advantageous to require not merely money—which, while passing through the hands of Harpies, is diminished—but grain, bacon, cheeses, butter, oil, fish, and other things. For subjects bring these more willingly, and they are kept more profitably.