§ 1. The ancients had two forms of military march, as Polybius observes. They depart from their camp in this manner. When the first signal has been given, they strike their tents and all pack their baggage. But no one is permitted either to take down or to set up a tent before those of the tribunes and commander are set up or taken down. When the second signal has sounded, they load the baggage upon the pack animals. At the third, the first men must advance and the whole camp must move.
They generally place the extraordinarii at the head of the column. The right wing of the allies follows them. After these come the pack animals belonging to the men just mentioned. The first Roman legion succeeds and follows their column, having its own equipment and baggage behind it; then comes the second legion, followed by its own pack animals and likewise by the baggage of the allies who are stationed in the rear. For the left wing of the allies is last in the column. The cavalry, moreover, are sometimes in the rear, each body behind its own division; sometimes they ride beside the pack animals, keeping and restraining them and also furnishing security.
But when there is apprehension about the rear, the remaining bodies retain the same manner and order; only the extraordinarii leave the front, attend to the rear, and are transferred there. On alternate days one legion and one wing lead, and the same bodies in turn follow, so that all may share equally in the advantage which comes from finding water or forage whole and untouched, as they continually change the order and advance first by turns.
They also employ another kind of column in times of insecurity, when they have open country. For they lead a threefold phalanx or battle-line, with its divisions at equal distances—the hastati, the principes, and the triarii. They place the pack animals of the first maniples before all of them, those of the second maniples behind the first maniples, and those of the third behind the second; and in this manner they always arrange the pack animals alternately. When the column has been formed in this way, if any hostile attack occurs, they incline at one time toward the shield and at another toward the spear, and bring the maniples out from among the pack animals and baggage into view of the enemy. Thus in a short time the body of armed men assumes the order for battle, except that the hastati must be brought out and the pack animals and the multitude following them must find a place suited to the emergency. When they have approached the place where camp is to be made, the tribune and those centurions who are always selected for this duty go ahead.
These arrangements were frequently changed according to the circumstance of places, enemies, and auxiliaries. Josephus, in book 5 of The Jewish War, says that, as Titus advanced into enemy territory, royal auxiliaries and all the allied forces went before him. After their armed men came Titus himself, having with him both other picked men and lancers, or scouts. After him came the cavalry of the legions, who preceded the engines; and after the engines came the tribunes and prefects of cohorts together with picked men. After these were the standards around the eagle, with the trumpeters before it. After these came the phalanx, or column of the legions, extended six men abreast. The servants and camp-followers of each legion came behind it and before its pack animals. Last of all came the mercenaries and their guards, the uragi, or men who closed the column.
Today they generally divide an army into two parts: by a term now customary they call the first the vanguard and the latter the rearguard. When the multitude is greater they add a middle body, which they call the battalion. The infantry is divided in this way; skillful commanders divide the cavalry differently. Although the ancients generally placed their camps in the same manner, they nevertheless had men who went ahead, who afterward were called measurers of camps. Silius:
Bolanus hastens to seek ridges suitable for the camp.
All things in the march of our armies are better arranged, chiefly because of the multitude of wagons.
When the place was unknown, they used guides, deserters, and sometimes prisoners in bonds. It was a sign that they were leading by a direct way if they gave accounts that agreed.
§ 2. When the enemy is near, the dangers of a march are greater than those of a battle-line. This must therefore be done: the departure must be made as like a battle-line as possible. In a battle-line all are armed in mind and body, the place is known, and the enemy is before their eyes. The contrary happens on a march; it must accordingly be arranged so that every danger is guarded against with the greatest caution.
“First, therefore,” Vegetius says in book 3, chapter 6, “there must be itineraries of all the regions.” The Franks who formerly marched against Fredegund were pitiable, because they did not explore the roads even in their own kingdom. Fredegund sent ahead of her army a threefold row of leafy branches with bells, so that the enemy would think that he was encountering a forest and grazing pack animals, for the light was still dim. A Greek commander compelled his men to be attentive by another method. Diocles aroused vigilance by a notable device: when they were advancing without order, he repeatedly changed the password; consequently, believing that the enemy was present, they marched with the battle-line formed.
§ 3. The method of a march is generally the same as that of other military matters: a commander should do one thing and appear to the enemy to be about to do another. Agesilaus, when it appeared that the Thebans were going to impede his army in narrow places, marched toward the walls of Thebes. They withdrew in alarm, and Agesilaus escaped through the narrow places with no one opposing him.
Pericles acted admirably when he was driven within precipitous mountains where there were two exits. On one side he drew a vast ditch, as if he intended to keep the enemy away; toward the other he drove his soldiers as though he intended to break through. When all the enemy had assembled on that side, thinking that he would not cross the ditch, Pericles himself laid down bridges which he had made and crossed the ditch undisturbed. The chief point is this: the enemy must not know what is to be done.
Alexander made steps upon Mount Ossa and crossed over them while the Thessalians held the narrow places. Pompilius covered or dug up the well-worn roads with sand and prepared new ones.
§ 4. When any province is invaded, every effort must be made to occupy and fortify some place at the outset, so that the army may establish a footing in it and extend itself toward other places. This is not only useful, but is in some measure the chief point of the matter. The sick, provisions, and booty can be deposited in that place. Next, if reinforcements are sent, they have a place to which they may withdraw. Third, loss is inflicted upon the enemy and his authority is diminished; his people think themselves captives so long as the invader maintains himself in some fortified place. Finally, if he is defeated in battle, he has a safe refuge.
Fifteen years ago, when Ambrogio Spinola suddenly crossed the Rhine, he possessed nothing pacified in that province, and the enemy had fortified Rheinberg because they expected a siege. He joined the Rhine with a bridge and raised temporary fortifications, so that he would be prepared for every event. As this occurrence was unexpected by the enemy, so it was deeply grievous to him, but advantageous to Spinola; for, safely withdrawing from the river in this way, he swiftly occupied Lingen and other cities. Afterward, when he held Rheinberg in his power, he demolished the earlier fortifications and took down the bridge.
It was with no other intention that Count Bucquoy maintained Budweis in Bohemia with such great industry and courage that, if he had occupied all Bohemia with a larger army, he would scarcely have gained greater glory. Indeed, after Spinola occupied Wesel, he fortified it with works and a garrison, judging it to be of very great importance that he should possess a seat of war suitable for controlling the Rhine and the Lippe.
Wagons are used on the march and in battle; but in order that they may be joined and serve as a rampart, they are customarily fastened together with beams and chains. If smaller cannon, which military usage calls falconets, are placed upon them, they keep the enemy away and close the rear and flanks with the greatest security. They can be drawn by two horses. The Duke of Alba used them in the Low Countries with great advantage, and the Turks always use them. I would consider it most useful if several wagons of this kind followed and protected the flanks, each carrying eight or ten pieces twice as large as muskets and having their gunners in the same wagon. No armor would resist these, and by their number they would keep the enemy away.
§ 5. If cavalrymen go ahead in a large body, they serve as scouts, provided that some are also in the rear of the column. Vegetius likewise places cavalry at the beginning, with concealed purpose, because they can easily withdraw and join the column.
§ 6. Sometimes men are compelled to fight while on the march because they cannot escape in any other manner. Agesilaus, when he saw the allies drawing back, went through the narrow places and ordered the Laconians to go first and the allies to follow. The enemy attacked them and compelled them to fight bravely. Without doubt this was a hazardous cast of the die; for what if the allies had joined the enemy? Polyainos, book 2.
In the same manner Leucon too was lavish with the blood of his allies. For when the Heracleots were disembarking from a ship, and he had set armed men opposite them, he ordered those who were in reserve to kill the allies unless they prevented the enemy from disembarking.
When the enemy pursues, the road must be blocked by artifice until you escape to safety. Pompey blocked every road leading to the port of Brundisium; then, after posting archers, he led his army down to the ships. The archers followed by routes known to them and sailed in small boats to the fleet.
§ 7. When Iphicrates was about to march through a scorching region, he set out by night, after ordering his soldiers to take water for two days.
§ 8. When I consider everything, military service today seems to me more exact and more circumspect in taking precautions. For this procedure is observed on a march. While the man undertaking an expedition sets out with one army, he must gather another. If he conquers, he will easily pursue the victory or dismiss the newly levied soldier; if he is conquered, he will keep his allies and subjects in their duty and wrest the fruit of the battle from the victor.
There is now a particular officer who has charge of the guides, couriers, and those who reconnoiter the road and surrounding places. The master of the engines arranges the artillery and the things pertaining to it; under him are miners for leveling roads where there is need of it. The chief officer placed over supplies has care of provisions. He has his own standard so that he may easily be found.
They undertake the march in this manner. After the roads have been reconnoitered and outriders sent forward, the vanguard advances; in time of danger some field pieces are added to it. Then the artillery follows in this order. First come wagons loaded with stakes, mattocks, spades, and every instrument for digging. Then follow the smaller and larger cannon, and in like manner the smiths’ tools. After these come lead, powder, ropes, and, as it were, their guard—mounted lancers and gunners. Wagons in which cannonballs are carried close them. Finally come the wagons of the master of the engines and everything pertaining to the engines, as well as provisions and what they call the hospital; they also carry the sick and wounded in wagons. Next are carried the commander’s wagons and baggage. Then come the remaining soldiers, in the order which dangers and the character of the places require.
The commander is placed in the middle, both so that he may be safer and so that he may more easily hasten to every part and send commands. Yet it is sometimes necessary that the commander be among the first, as Mendoza relates that he himself saw. For when the commander knew that he was being sought and that the enemy was close at hand, he hastened, selected a place suitable for battle, fortified himself and drew up the battle-line before the last part had arrived, and won.
When cavalry spreads itself out, one must notice whether there is darkness or light beneath its feet. If there is darkness, the battle-line is deep; if there is light, there is only a front rank. If it is viewed from a higher place, an inference concerning the whole number will be easy.
When roads divide on the march, they are customarily guarded until the baggage has passed. If the army passes through a forest, men take possession of it after musketeers have been sent forward, so that the march may be safe. Today rivers can scarcely be crossed except by a stratagem and secretly, for cannon can scarcely be used in a river.
It is not advisable to place a camp in mountains, because supplies are easily obstructed. On a plain, a stream, forest, hill, or marsh is generally advantageous. There is a military proverb: “There is no advantageous place where there is another more advantageous.” The chief advantage must therefore be sought. The most advantageous site for laying out a camp is one to which approach is difficult and departure easy.
They place the cavalry in such a manner that the fortifications are not seen until the work is finished. If villages are within the camp, the soldiers must not dwell in the houses, for they are easily attacked secretly and set on fire. But this matter is easily attended to.
The care taken over camps is immense. When the soldiers enter them, all the men of the vanguard remain standing in order until the middle body enters. The middle body remains standing until all the baggage has entered. Then all turn to the care of their bodies, except those on watch.
Watches are posted wherever it is thought that the enemy may approach either by force or by deceit. If the camp is near a forest or thicket, many advance sentries must be posted, so that the more distant may warn the others in order and all things may be reported to the commander. The rule of sentries today is that they hold their ground until they are driven away by force. They do not fight even if they are stronger; if they are attacked, they defend themselves and report everything to their own men. If they see that they are inferior, they retreat while preserving their ranks.
When the enemy can attack from many places, many strong watches must be established. From this it is apparent how thoroughly camps must be fortified. Cavalrymen who are to protect foragers are customarily sent ahead of them. When danger exists, a third part of the army keeps watch, and in the most extreme danger one half. Among the regular watches they also station extraordinary ones, which they call small watches, and arrange double advance sentries, so that security may be provided on every side.
Sometimes they place cavalry watches near the camp of the enemy, which on account of the danger they call lost watches. Scouts are customarily sent out by night. They are not given the password, lest, if one of them is captured, he be compelled to disclose it to the enemy. If they are to return by night, one soldier is sent ahead to the advance sentries and informs the prefect of the watches that the scouts are returning. He informs the commander. A companion from among those who know the password is added to the men entering the camp, so that they may be admitted. The same procedure is customarily observed by day when cavalrymen return from a distant mission. Thus there is now greater care of watches than formerly; and certainly, while I consider everything which anyone among the soldiers can observe, I clearly see that military prudence has increased from day to day.
§ 9. This must especially be noted: those err who think that any region is so fortified by rivers, forests, mountains, and other things that an enemy cannot enter it. Moses led an army through sands impassable because of serpents, under the guidance of ibises. They try places without a road. Hannibal broke through the Alps with vinegar. Recently men broke through into Bohemia although the way was besieged and denied them. Our own Bohemia is therefore a witness: in a single year a way was opened so many times for its devastation. Accordingly, an approaching enemy must be resisted with arms; everything else permits him to pass.
§ 10. It was formerly common for men to protect themselves by placing captives in the way of missiles. When Aemilius Paulus led his army against the Lucanians and the Tarentine fleet attacked him with scorpions, he covered the flanks of his men with captives. Agesilaus the Laconian did the same when returning from Phrygia.