§ 1. I shall take my beginning from Leo the Great. For, when the empire of the West was now coming to an end or falling, he ruled the East, and in the beginnings of his reign, after suppressing a sedition, he killed Aspar and Ardaburius. Zeno thereafter, when he had thrown everything into confusion, was driven out by Basiliscus; nor did the betrayal go unpunished: Basiliscus, captured with his family, was compelled to die of hunger. Zeno, returning from exile to the empire and stained by the slaughter of illustrious men, was himself at last buried alive. Great seditions attended Anastasius. Having Longinus as his adversary, he was endangered as to his life. Evis the logothete and the prefect scarcely escaped the hands of the people, lest they be torn apart. When Justin had gained the empire by artifice, he had Amantius the eunuch, Theocritianus, and Andreas the chamberlain as plotters against him; the Constantinopolitans thereafter killed Vitalian, who commanded the emperor.
The empire of Justinian was renowned, yet it too was agitated by many civil wars. Gelimer revolted and drew Africa away. The Samaritans also stirred up hideous wars. A grave sedition arose at Constantinople. Ammianus recounts it: Hypatius, Pompeius, and Probus, cousins by birth and nephews of the emperor Anastasius, because each desired the empire for himself with unworthy ambition, on the Ides of January, together with very many of the nobles who had conspired and with the entire multitude of the seditious, enticed after arms and gifts had been supplied, attempted to invade it by treachery; and for five whole days, while they ran through the royal city with plunder, sword, and fire by means of criminal citizens, without any fixed ruler in the interval, they devastated it with hostile impiety, while in our palace they dissemblingly professed themselves faithful to the state. But on the fifth day of this impious crime, while Hypatius, wreathed with a golden necklace by the hands of the criminals accompanying him, and Pompeius the count, armored in his own garment, were ascending from the forum to invade and hold the palace, each of them was captured before the palace doors; and immediately, at the command of our most pious prince, each was put in chains and slaughtered and paid the penalty, losing the empire before he possessed it, while countless persons among the people and the associates of the tyrants were slain here and there in the Circus and immediately proscribed.
Afterwards, when barbarians occupied the East and the Franks Gaul, Artabanes conspired with Arsaces and others against Justinian, although the same Artabanes had recently killed the tyrant Guntharis in Africa. Justinian deservedly suffered these things, having changed for the worse, so far that he sought domestic and civic discords. Evagrius, Book IV: “I must also speak of another deed of Justinian. Whether it arose from a defect of nature or from apprehension and fear I am unable to say; yet it was of such a kind that it far surpassed every bestial savagery. It took its beginning from that popular sedition which they call Nika, that is, ‘Conquer.’ It pleased Justinian to incline so vehemently toward one of the factions, whose members are called the Greens, that they could slaughter their adversaries in the city at midday with impunity and not only fear no punishments but even be honored with offices; and so many murderers arose from among them. For they were permitted to break into the houses of others, plunder the treasures stored within them, and deprive men of their very safety and life; and if any magistrate attempted to restrain them, he created danger for his own head. Hence certainly a certain man who held magistracy in the East, because he wished to chastise with scourges some of those who favored us, so that they might become more restrained, was led through the middle of the city and severely beaten with scourges. Callinicus, moreover, prefect of Cilicia, when two Cilicians, Paulus and Faustinus, both murderers, made an assault upon him and intended to kill him, because he punished them with the penalty established by the laws, was driven to the cross; and he was subjected to this punishment for his upright conscience and observance of the laws. Hence it came about that those who belonged to the other faction, when they had fled from their homes and were received nowhere by anyone with hospitality, but were hunted like criminals, began to lay ambushes for travelers, rob them, and commit murders, to such a degree that every place overflowed with premature death, plunder, and the other crimes of that kind. Sometimes, when his mind had changed to the opposite opinion, he killed men of that kind—
—and permitted the power of the laws to extend even to those whom he had previously allowed, after the custom of barbarians, to perpetrate impious crimes in the cities. But for pursuing these matters one by one I have neither sufficient time nor ability of speech.” For this reason Evagrius says that, when he had filled absolutely everything with disturbance and tumult, he was carried off to pay punishments among those below. Nicephorus says that he repented. A sedition was stirred up against him in his old age, and Belisarius is said to have been privy to it.
Justin, having first attempted to pacify the divided empire, suppressed the Alexandrian sedition at the beginning. He deprived Narses of his dignity, became angry with Marciana, and rendered everything untrustworthy toward himself; at last he was afflicted by magical enchantments. Tiberius, the colleague and successor of Justin and an excellent prince, suffered a plot on the first day of his coronation from Justinian, Justin’s nephew; thereafter Sophia almost ensnared him in greater danger. Maurice followed, whom the soldiers killed. Phocas also paid the penalty of parricide: after a renewed conspiracy, Heraclius, a new emperor from Africa, killed and burned Phocas. During his reign the Persians came through Asia and Egypt as far as Africa and occupied Carthage, while meanwhile Caianus and other barbarians did not remain at rest. When the Persian had been conquered, the Saracens occupied Syria and the neighboring regions.
After him, Constantine, after four months, and Heracleonas, after a period of three months, were cast down, and Constans ruled; against him Valentinian the patrician soon attempted tyranny. But while he raged against the orthodox, he cast himself into the greatest danger: he lost Africa, Armenia revolted, and he became so hateful to his own people that, while dwelling in Sicily, he was suffocated in a bath. Constantine Pogonatus had bloody beginnings, the noses of his brothers having been cut off; he killed the rebel Mizizius and experienced everything as unsafe.
Justinian, receiving a harassed empire, was immediately agitated by the revolt of Sabbatius, praetor of Armenia. He incurred immense hatred and contempt for himself; the nobles conspired against him, and, after his nose and tongue had been cut off, he was relegated to Cherson. Leontius seized the empire; after Lazica was betrayed by Sergius, he was mutilated in the nose and handed over to Apsimar. The latter, ensnared by the plots of the exiled Justinian, was led in procession with Leontius and trodden under Justinian’s feet. For Justinian raged against everyone with horrendous cruelty, as against the men of Ravenna and the nobles of Cherson and the Bosporus. Philippicus was chosen emperor and slaughtered Justinian together with Tiberius. Conspirators blinded Philippicus and drove him from the kingdom; Artemius was then driven out by Theodosius, and he yielded to Leo.
Leo suffered a conspiracy at the very beginning, and so ruled that Italy revolted from him and he divided the Church and the empire. Hence came civil wars and Italy’s freedom from the yoke of the Greeks; because of iconoclasm the East was tossed by seditions. All these things raged more grievously against the empire under Copronymus. At the beginning he was in the most immediate danger of his life, and Artabasdus was saluted as emperor; his sons were partly killed and partly thrust into monasteries, while all men of sound mind detested the foul king. Hence there was a mournful civil war, in which Copronymus as victor produced examples of cruelty. But hatred of the victor remained; hence came the seditions of the Bulgarians, and at last a most wretched death carried him off in despair.
There followed the times of Irene and Constantine, not merely seditious but also savage against their own blood. For at the beginning there was a conspiracy against Irene; she reduced Constantine to the ranks of private men; the army restored him and abolished a woman’s empire. But she was soon replaced upon the throne, suppressed the seditions of the Armenian legions, and at last, after her enemies had been oppressed, blinded her son through the soldiers, and likewise her kinsmen. Stauracius thereafter, while stirring up sedition, died of disease; his accomplices were killed; Aetius attempted tyranny. But Nicephorus, having ensnared Irene’s guards by treachery, punished her with exile, although he had affirmed by oath that he would not do so. Nor did Nicephorus thereafter long enjoy the kingdom obtained through crime: for, aroused by a sedition of the Bulgarians, he was annihilated with his army. His son Stauracius was soon stripped of the empire by Michael Rhangabe. Leo drove out Michael, Michael the Stammerer drove out Leo; hence came other seditions, especially that of Euphemius, who promised to betray Sicily to the African Emir.
The empire of Theophilus was somehow pacified, but bloody, to such a degree that Theophilus, already about to die, killed Theophobus, adding this pronouncement: “Now neither shall I be Theophilus, nor shall you be Theophobus.” Michael, the son of Theophilus, wicked toward his mother, was killed by Basil; Sabbatius and George plotted against Basil. Leo then followed, who implored the loyalty of the Turks against the rebellious Bulgarians; hence various slaughters ensued, even in a church. Constantine, Leo’s son, succeeded him. When the deceits of Samonas had been exposed, Alexander, Constantine’s guardian, was killed. Constantine the Domestic attempted to occupy the empire of the ward, but, having fallen from his horse in battle, was beheaded. Then the disagreements of the commanders afflicted the army against the Pechenegs.
But many then aspired to the empire, especially Leo Phocas, whom the emperor’s tutor overthrew; then Romanus, but he reduced his son-in-law to the ranks of private men, although he was himself wearied by many machinations, such as those of Bardas and his associates, then of the Mystic, Micetas, and Pseudo-Constantine. Finally, the man who had been so faithless toward his ward was expelled by his sons. Another Romanus suppressed conspiracies, but, having died a little later, left the empire to Nicephorus Phocas, whom others compelled to undertake it. But the city was thrown into tumult for that reason, and as long as he lived he was in the greatest hatred; an occasion for vengeance was always sought, until his wife Theophano and Tzimisces accomplished it.
An eunuch removed Tzimisces by poison, after he had first scarcely suppressed the sedition of Phocas and Leo. Basil Porphyrogenitus then received the empire. Bardas revolted and became emperor; there was a battle between Sclerus and Peter the Eunuch; Contostephanus betrayed the army; Xiphias and Nicephorus, being seditious, were crushed. Constantine, the brother of Basil, followed, oppressive to the state through luxury and cruelty, without any memorable deed except that he cruelly avenged the sedition of the city of Naupactus.
Romanus Argyropulus, nearly an old man and deranged, labored under domestic evils and was agitated more by the laughter of the common people than by seditions. His wife Zoe suffocated him in a bath and advanced her adulterer to the empire; he soon reduced her to the ranks of private persons. Then came the sedition and disaster of the Antiochenes, many revolts and depredations, and Sicily was lost. Zoe attempted in vain to remove John, her husband’s brother, from the midst; yet she compelled her husband to abstain from public affairs and adopted Michael Calaphates. He, cruel toward illustrious men, expelled Zoe, but was compelled by a tumult of the people to recall her and was at last blinded. Zoe and Theodora were restored to their former condition. Zoe recalled Constantine Monomachus and married him. Monomachus, ruled by his wife, experienced George Maniaces as a valiant enemy; thereafter he was attacked by the plots of Theophilus, Eroticus, the Orphanotrophus, Leo Tornicius, Aplespharis, and Romanus Boilas.
The empress Theodora designated Michael Stratioticus emperor. He ruled for one year—
—and was severe toward the soldiers; hence sedition arose. Theodosius, its instigator, was relegated; the Easterners, repeatedly driven by various injuries, aspired to the empire; Bryennius was blinded; Isaac Comnenus at last occupied the empire. Since he was hateful to everyone, he laid down the empire and designated Constantine Ducas, whom plotters had resolved to drown, but he escaped by chance.
Constantine Ducas left three children with Eudocia, who wished Romanus Diogenes to be her husband, so that she might have him as emperor against the Persians. For a time he endured the woman’s dominion; then, while waging wars courageously, he was deserted by Andronicus; John at last attacked him, and there arose the gravest civil war of all, in which, captured and blinded, he ended his life through grief. Nicephorus the eunuch thereafter administered everything under Michael Ducas. John was therefore saluted as emperor; Nestor revolted; Nicephorus Bryennius excited a sedition; when he had been routed, Botaniates was at last created emperor. The Varangians stirred up a movement against him; Nicephorus Basilacius contemplated a more dangerous sedition; Constantine Ducas a very great one; the logothete likewise came under suspicion.
At last the Comneni aspired to the empire. Alexius was proclaimed emperor and by betrayal occupied and plundered Byzantium, and he procured more enemies for himself than others had. When he returned to Constantinople, the plots of commanders, senators, and commoners received him; thereafter those of Humbertopulus, Ariebes, Nicephorus, and Anemas with the commanders of the soldiery. When the emperor’s wife attempted to bar everyone from access to him, the courtiers, Pseudo-Alexius, and the Cilician rendered life scarcely preservable for him.
John Calo succeeded Alexius against his mother’s will. He pacified the conspiracies begun against him and reconciled his mother and sister. He also experienced his brothers as adversaries; indeed, his son Isaac revolted to the sultan. He was harassed by a tyrant at Trebizond and at home. Manuel Comnenus followed, who prevailed more against Christians than against barbarians. For he was renowned for the arts by which he frustrated the expedition of the Germans; he afflicted Conrad’s army in every way, waged wars against Roger, and stormed the Corcyraeans, in whose siege a bloody sedition arose between Greeks and Venetians. There were hostilities between him and the commanders, and, if it could have happened, there would have been wars.
The boy Alexius perished through the wickedness of his ministers. Andronicus especially plotted against him, and there was not one form of evil. Maria Caesarissa conspired against the Protosebastus, who administered the empire, and aroused the people to arms; a bloody contest arose. Afterwards Andronicus openly sought the empire. The Protosebastus prepared a fleet against him, but all the leading men revolted from the latter; Andronicus seized the reins of the empire, and John Comnenus afflicted him. Andronicus’s first plots against the emperor fell in vain; the second succeeded.
Andronicus, harassed by Isaac Comnenus and the king of the Sicilians, had the most sorrowful end among all the emperors. Isaac Angelus waged civil wars against the Sicilian, the Cypriot, the revolting Vlachs, and Branas, by whom he was besieged at Byzantium. He was captured and blinded by his brother Alexius. Nor did Alexius long endure the joys of treason. The sedition of the Cilician Pseudo-Alexius and of Isaac Comnenus, the Vlachs, and the Asens exhausted him. Alexius Angelus experienced nothing except seditions and fears.
Under Alexius Comnenus great disagreements concerning the Eucharist held the Greeks. Besides these, John Comnenus Crassus stirred up sedition, and many others rose up for sedition. Alexius Angelus, the son of Isaac, came as a companion of the Venetians to assault Constantinople; the city was besieged and deformed by fire; Alexius went into exile. The tyranny of Alexius Ducas was brief; Ducas, who was also called Murzuphlus, fled. Yet amid the ashes of the city a new contest arose between Lascaris and Theodore Ducas. At last the Flemings gained possession of affairs; Theodore Lascaris, however, was saluted emperor at Nicaea and seemed about to return to Constantinople, but his father-in-law Alexius hindered him through the Turks, lest the son-in-law recover the empire which he himself had been unable to hold.
Alexius nevertheless, after collecting forces, founded the empire of Trebizond, to which he added Cappadocia and Colchis. Michael Angelus received Thessaly; Michael Palaeologus afterwards occupied it, for seditions and wars were not absent even among the mangled members. Palaeologus recovered Constantinople, and the family of the Palaeologi ruled—Michael, the two Andronici, Manuel, John, and Constantine—and did so amid great fear and the wars of the Turks, and with moderate concord. If, however, they had been fortified by the aid of their neighbors, they would not with difficulty have withstood the Turk.
Behold how difficult it is to rule man, how great things fall in upon themselves. The whole care of the prince, therefore, must be directed to this: that he guard against sedition, whence the greatest wars arise. For who will judge himself safe when he beholds these butcheries?