A Dissertation Concerning the Tacticks of the Hebrews, by the Chevalier de Folard

FATHER Calmet’s Dissertation concerning the military Affairs of the old Hebrews, is a Work justly to be admired, and abounds with profound, as well as agreeable and very instructive Learning. The Author enlarges much on the military Discipline of this People, upon their Arms of every kind, upon their Incampments, Marches, Sieges, and their way of defending Places: and of these Particulars he treats with so much Accuracy and Knowledge, and in so elaborate a manner, that there is scarce room for any Additions. But as to their Tacticks, that is to say, their manner of putting themselves in order of The Occasion of this Piece.Battle, of Fighting, and performing all the different Movements which depend on this Science, he runs too hastily over an Article of so much consequence; and has too bad an Opinion of the Hebrews: which has induced me to set down here some Observations upon a Matter of so much Importance.

This learned Commentator, speaking of their Order of Battle, represents the Israelites to be a People something barbarous. “This is certain,” says he, in his Dissertation, “that the Eastern “ People made war of old with very “ little Order. All consisted rather in “ the Impetuosity, Ardor, Courage, and “ Intrepidity of the Soldiers, than in any “ methodical and exact Discipline, and “ in acting by the Orders and Movements “ of the General. There were astonishing Effects of Valour and Resolution “ among them, but conducted often in “ a manner very little agreeing with the “ good Rules of War.” If the Author had been a Soldier, he would have perceived the Force of those Scripture-Expressions which he himself cites a little higher, and, without doubt, would have thought quite otherwise, and, consequently, have alter’d his Language. It is true, some of these Expressions seem to favour his Opinion; but the generality of them are against him, and manifestly prove that the The Hebrews understood War. Gen. xiv. 8. Judg. xx. 22. 1 Sam. iv. 2. & xvii. 21. 1 Chron. xii. 38. They had different Subaltern Officers.Hebrews fought with Order and Method.

The Expressions, which are very frequently made use of in the Scripture, are these following: To join battle, to put in Battle-array, terrible as an Army in order of Battle. Do not these demonstrate that the Hebrews made war not like Barbarians, but with Order, and according to the Rules of the most exact and methodical Discipline? Will any one produce against us what is said in the original Text of the Chronicles, that at the Time when David was persecuted by Saul, there came a great Number of brave Men to him, who were Men of War, that could keep rank? These Terms do not intimate that the Israelites fought without Order, in Crouds, and in Confusion; but on the contrary, that these gallant Men understood the Disposition of Troops for Battles. The Hebrews had different Subaltern Officers, whose Business it was to lead on the Soldiers, and range them in proper Order; and who were appointed to perform all the Offices which made part of the Science called Tacticks, by the Greeks: These Officers were answerable to our Quarter-Masters-General, and the Soldiers obeyed them as Sheep obey their Shepherd.

Here, therefore, we have an Explanation of the Words above-cited, and all others of the like nature which we meet with in the Scripture: as when it is said, that Saul gathered together all his People, and reviewed them like a Flock of Sheep¹: that is to say, Saul ordered all the Soldiers of his Army to file off before him; or otherwise, he gathered them together as a Shepherd gathers his Flock, that he may conduct them to their Pasture. In like manner when the Scripture says, that the Israelites appeared but as two little Flocks of Kids, in comparison of the Syrians, 1 Kings xx. 27.who covered all the Country: whereby we are to understand, that the Army of the Israelites was divided into two small Bodies, the better to support the Servants belonging to the several Princes of Israel, who formed another small Vanguard, and afterwards to fall upon the Wings of the Syrian Army, as soon as it began to give ground. The Disposition of this Battle may be seen under the Article Samaria. In a word, any one may be easily convinced, and conclude from what we have said, that the Hebrews were so far from engaging without Order, and in Confusion, that, on the contrary, they shewed great Art in their manner of making War, and fighting set Battles.

The Hebrews, in their Beginnings, made use of none but Infantry; and the Strength of their Armies, we see, at all times did consist of Foot, who were intrepid, and made no scruple of attacking every where the Horse, which were little valued by them; and, what is surprizing, they never degenerated from the Time of Moses, to the Destruction of Jerusalem. Their Kings resolved at last to have Cavalry, but it was not comparable to their Infantry; on the contrary, these Troops were so weak, that there were very few Occasions wherein they signalized themselves. The Romans, for a long time, imitated the Hebrews: They had at first only Foot, with whose Strength and Bravery they were so well acquainted, that they made it as it were a standing Law among themselves, always to fight on foot: from which Rule no one was exempted; the very General was not allowed to march on Horseback: From this, however, there was some Derogation, in favour of Fabius Maximus². F. Calmet observes, that David had so little inclination to make use of Horses, and Chariots of War, that he hamstrung the Horses which he took from the Syrians, and ordered their Chariots The Armies of the Hebrews were divided into different Bodies, which had each their Head.to be burnt.

The Armies of the Hebrews were composed out of the twelve Tribes. Every Tribe formed several Bodies, or Regiments; every Regiment consisted of a thousand Men; these thousand Men were divided into Companies of Hundreds, the Companies into Fifties, the Fifties into Parties of ten Men each, and these Parties into lesser, of three Men, one of whom commanded the other two. All these different Bodies had their Commanders: The Tribunes were at the head of the Regiments, the Centurions of the Companies, the Decurions of the Parties; and, lastly, the Shalishim, at the head of two Soldiers. All these Officers are mentioned very plainly in the Books of Moses, Ex. xiv. 7. Hebr.and the Maccabees. It appears, that besides the General, there were more General-Officers under his command. Those whom the Scripture calls Scribes of the Army, were put into these Posts, not only to keep Registers of the Troops, like our Commissaries of War, or our Inspectors; but their Employment extended farther, to military Discipline, for they exercised the Soldiers. The Kings made war in Person, rarely by their Lieutenants: They generally The Kings made war in Person.commanded the Army, and fought on foot, at least in the earlier Times. We see, however, an Example to the contrary in David’s Reign; for Absalom, when his Army was routed, fled upon his Mule.

2 Sam. xviii. 9.Before we come to the Tacticks of the Hebrews, we shall make some farther Observations upon their Arms, both offensive and defensive, notwithstanding that F. Calmet has enlarged hereupon so much, as seemingly to have exhausted this Matter. The Arms made use of by the Israelites, differed very little from those The Arms of the Hebrews.which were used afterwards by the Romans. We do not see that at first Pikes were employed by them: this sort of weapon was, however, in use among the Egyptians, witness the Battle fought by Cræsus against Cyrus; wherein the hundred and twenty thousand Egyptians, who had marched to the Assistance of the former, were Pikemen, according to Xenophon’s relation³, for they bore large Shields, with their Pikes and small Cutlasses.

It is surprizing, that Moses and Joshua should There is no mention of Pikes in Scripture.not make use of this kind of weapon; the Scripture, at least, does not mention it. It does not appear to have been in use among the Asiaticks; we do not find it either in Cræsus’s or Cyrus’s Army, excepting among the Egyptian Auxiliaries, as is afore-mentioned. This Circumstance would persuade me that Moses went out of Egypt unarmed, and that he had no other Weapons but such as were the Spoils of those People whom he overcame after his passing the Red-Sea; for, in all probability, he could have no advantage from the Arms of Pharoah’s Soldiers, these being buried under the Water.

Arms offensive and defensive.We see under the Judges, says Dom. Calmet, and much more under the Kings, that the Hebrews used the same Arms in war as their Neighbours. They had Swords, Darts, Lances, Javelins, Bows, Arrows, and Slings. These were offensive Weapons. The defensive were Helmets, Cuirasses, Shields, and Thigh-pieces, which were all afterwards, as we have said, Arms of the Romans. Their Helmets, as well as those of other People, were commonly of Brass. As to the Cuirasses, there were different Sorts of them; as may be seen in the Description given of them by this learned Commentator. It is certain, that almost all the People in the World, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and others, had defensive Arms of these several Kinds. As to the Eastern People, Herodotus is our warrant for this Truth⁴: The Passage, in his History, is very curious; the Author is there describing the offensive and defensive Weapons of so many different People as composed the innumerable Army of Xerxes, wherein he agrees perfectly with what the Scripture says relating to the Arms of the Hebrews. Particularly it may be observed here, that they were the same with those of the Persians: But, what is surprizing, in all this multitude of Nations, he makes no mention of Pikemen; for, upon this footing, the Greeks, who used Pikes at that time, must have had a great advantage at the Battle of Platea over the Persians, who could scarce oppose them with any other Weapons but such as were to be thrown, or with others that were not so long as Pikes, which are of such a length, that there is no coming at those who have them; and who, with this Weapon, are to be feared at a distance. Besides that, the mixture of long with short Arms, so necessary to produce any great Effect in the time of action, was wanting in Xerxes’s Army.

The Weapons of the heavy-arm’d Greeks were Pikes, Shields, Helmets, and Cuirasses. Their Pikes were of sixteen Cubits, but the exact Measure of their Cubit is unknown to us. Pikes, to be serviceable, and easily managed, could scarce be above eighteen Foot in length; at least, if we would judge of them by the Strength of the generality of Men, and by the Knowledge we have of such sort of Arms: Besides, it is uncertain whether they were of greater or less length, in the first than in the second Rank. As to the Bucklers used by such as were drawn up in Phalanxes, they could not be very large, without incommoding, whatever Xenophon may say of those which the Egyptian Pikemen bore at the Battle of Thymbraia⁵.

All the difference that I find between the Greeks and Hebrews, relating to the Weapons of those who were heavy-armed, is this, that the latter did not commonly make use of Pikes. I dare not say the same of the Lance, we meet this Word in the Versions of the Scripture; I should be very glad to know whether the Hebrew Word, which is so translated, properly signifies a Lance, for I am apt to think it does not.

Isa. xxii. 5.Of all defensive Arms, Bucklers were the most useful, and the least cumbersome: It was, in all probability, infamous for an Israelite, as it was for a Roman or a Grecian, to leave his Shield behind him in any Combat. Dom. Calmet says, that ” the Hebrews have four several Words for this Weapon, and that ” it is out of all question certain, that ” they do not all signify absolutely the ” same thing; there was a difference in ” them, either in their Form, or Matter.” Wherein this Difference consisted, the Scripture does not inform us; or, at least, we cannot comprehend it from the original Terms: and, after all, it is of very little consequence to us to know it. It is certain that Shields were either of Wood or Ozier, covered with Leather. Arise, said Isaiah to the People who were to destroy Babylon, arise, and anoint your Shields: Which can be naturally understood only of such Shields as were covered with Leather, which were greased in order to keep them clean, and prevent their drying too much. The sacred History mentions Shields of Brass, Gold, and other Metals: Goliath covered his Shoulders 1 Sam. xvii. 6.with a Shield of Brass; but, to say the Truth, it must be owned, that this Brass consisted only in Plates fastened upon the Wood, such as those were belonging to the Bucklers which Solomon enriched with gold Plates, and laid up in the Temple; and which were taken away by Shishak King of Egypt, in the room whereof King Rehoboam placed other 1 Kings xiv. 26, 27.brazen Shields: but certainly the Brass here spoken of, was only Plates fixed upon the Wood; which is sufficient for our making a right Judgment of Goliath’s, and deciding that it was not all of this Metal: for, had it been so, supposing it to be proportionable to his Body, I doubt whether this Giant, and still more, whether his Squire had been able to support the Weight of it.

The Hebrews excelled, particularly, in missive Weapons. The Dexterity of their Archers and Slingers, their way of Fighting.Slingers, and Archers, was as surprizing as it was admirable. These People made up the principal Strength of their Armies; they fought like those of the Greeks and Romans, that is to say, at a distance, and without coming to blows with the Enemy: So that their Combats were properly Skirmishes, which scarce brought Matters to a Decision, but were a great Help and Relief, when they who fought thus, were placed between the Squadrons. The Romans did not follow this Method till towards the middle of the second Punick War, at the Siege of Capua, tho they might have learned it ever since the first: and Hannibal had made use of it at the Battle of Trebia; for the Carthaginians retained always the way of Fighting used by the Phœnicians and Hebrews, as well with respect to the Order and Disposition of their Troops, as with regard to the Arms with which they fought.

Bows and Arrows, Quivers and Slings, were the usual Arms of light-armed Troops; and the Scripture every where makes mention of them. The People of Asia had always a great number of Archers, but the Hebrews had, besides, a The Dexterity of the Slingers.greater number of Slingers: They were very much in esteem, and so expert, that at the Siege of Gibeah there were seven hundred Judg. xx. 16.of them in the Town, who could have hit a Hair, without the Stone’s turning aside, either to the right Hand or the left. What was more wonderful in them, they all used both Hands alike, and were all equally skilful in throwing Stones with Slings. We are well acquainted with David’s Address and Success, when, with one Blow with a Stone, he laid the Giant 1 Sam. xvii. 41.Goliath on the Ground. In short, nothing was more surprizing than the Dexterity of those light-armed Troops; whether in Skirmishes, Sieges, or Battles, they every where performed Wonders. 1 Kings x. 16, 17.Dom. Calmet, to whom I refer the Reader, is very large on this Matter.

Chariots of War.This, in few words, is all concerning the Arms, properly speaking, of the Hebrews, and the neighbouring Nations, with which they were almost continually at war. They had many others, but they had no relation to those we have been speaking of; such, for example, were the Chariots of War, which, in reality, should be reckoned among Machines.

We do not know the Original of Chariots of War; the most ancient, which we have any knowledge of, are those with which Pharaoh pursued the Israelites; after their Departure out of Egypt, and were lost in the Red-Sea. Scarce any besides the People of Asia made use of them; the Greeks and Romans had none, as appears by the little regard they had for them. The learned Commentator says, that ” the Iron Chariots, or Chariots armed with Scythes, were one of ” the most terrible Things made use of ” by the Ancients in War.” I confess that Machines of this kind were dreadful, at least to the Sight; but I do not discern that they were of any great Effect. There were two sorts of Chariots, one for a single Person, and the Driver, which Princes and Generals sometimes used; the others were armed with Scythes, at the two Extremities of the Axle-tree, or at the Stocks of the Wheels.

Diodorus the Sicilian⁶, whom Dom. Calmet has cited, represents them perfectly well. ” The Yoke, says he, of ” each of the two Horses which drew ” the Chariot, was armed with two ” Spikes, of three Cubits in length, which ” pointed forward against the Face of ” the Enemy. At the Axle-tree two ” others were fastened, turned the same ” way as the former, but longer, and ” with Scythes at their Extremities.” These Chariots were to be made in several Forms; and Stewechius, in his Notes upon Vegetius, has engraved all those whereof he had any knowledge. The Chariots which Cyrus disposed in the Front of his Army at the Battle of Thymbraia⁷, were armed like the others described by Diodorus; but those which covered the Rear of the Line, were, in reality, Towers, or ambulatory Redoubts, drawn by sixteen Pair of Oxen.

How the Chariots of War were ranged.The Chariots armed with Scythes, were generally placed on the whole Front of the Infantry, ranged in a strait Line, parallel sometimes to the Cavalry. Some of them were with four, others with two Wheels only: These were driven against the Enemy, whom they never failed to put into disorder, when they were followed close by the Line. There were two Ways of Ways to make them useless.rendring them useless: first, by opening a Passage for them thro’ the Battalions; secondly, by killing their Horses before they were too far advanced; for then they were so far from being any way helpful to those who employed them, that, on the contrary, they became very prejudicial to them, because they not only embarrassed them, but farther, broke the Closeness of the Line, and checked all the Force of the Onset.

An incredible Number of Chariots in Armies. Joshua xi. 4.The Canaanites, whom Joshua encountered at the Waters of Merom, had, as the Scripture says, an infinite Number of Horses and Chariots: Equi et currus immensæ multitudinis. The Tribe of Judah could not make themselves Masters of the Cities belonging to the Canaanites, who were in the Plain, because they had a great quantity of Chariots armed with Scythes: Judg. i. 19. Ibid. iv. 3.Quia falcatis curribus abundabant. Jabin had nineteen hundred Chariots in his Army armed after this manner. But what most surprizes me, is the incredible Number of them that the Philistines had in the Reign of Saul; which, in the Account of some, amounted to thirty thousand. I must take 2 Sam. xiii. 5.the liberty to be a little doubtful here; for the Philistines formed but a small People, and the Country they possessed, lay within very narrow Limits: how then could they alone bring into the Field so great a number of Chariots, as all Asia, perhaps, was not able to supply; since, allowing only two Men and two Horses to every Chariot, the Number of both the one and the other amounted each to sixty thousand? And is it probable that the Forces of the Philistines were so powerful?

We do not see that the Israelites, before the Reign of Saul, and even of David, had Arsenals, or Places of Arms. The Hebrews at that time were all Soldiers, brave, disciplined, and ready to march: So that in time of War every City, and every particular Village, furnished a certain Number of Men, who voluntarily quitted their Houses, their Fields, their Wives and Children, to maintain the Interests of the Nation. Every one provided himself with Arms, and Victuals: so that the most numerous Armies were formed in an instant, and were composed all of Men of courage; who having continually before their Eyes the Wonders which God had wrought, and that too frequently, in their favour, were animated, as well by the Hopes of conquering, as by the natural Aversion they had to the Enemies of their Belief and Religion. They must, besides, have been well confirmed in these Opinions; “ since,” according to the learned Commentator, “ they had no “ other Recompence to expect, but the “ Spoils which might be taken from the “ Enemy: unless on some extraordinary “ Occasions;” for example, when Saul promised to heap great Riches upon the Man who should overcome Goliath, to give him his Daughter in Marriage, 1 Sam. xvii. 25.and to exempt his Father’s Family from the Payment of all Taxes: Which, however, was what he executed but very ill with respect to David, who obtained a signal Victory over this Giant.

“ This Discipline,” continues he, “ was “ observed not only under Moses, Joshua, “ and the Judges; but was kept up likewise under the Kings, and after the Captivity under the Maccabees, till the Government of Simon, who was Prince “ and High- Priest of his Nation, and had “ Troops regularly Macc. xiv. 32. Troops kept in Pay. 3 Kings iv. 26.maintained and paid.” It is true, David long before had Troops in his Pay, but the Number of them is almost incredible, it being computed to be two hundred and fourscore thousand Men, all regular Troops, without including the Cherethites and Pelethites, who were Foreigners: He had every Month, the Scripture says, four and twenty thousand Men for his Guard. Solomon, who succeeded him, kept them all up; and had besides, forty thousand Stalls of Horses for his Chariots, and twelve thousand Saddle- Horses. In another Place it is said, that he had fourteen hundred Chariots of War, and 1 Kings x. 26. 2 Chron. ix. 25.twelve thousand Horsemen. The Chronicles make the Number of these Chariots amount to twelve thousand. To say the Truth, this is all incomprehensible; and these Variations in the sacred Writers, shew that there is a Mistake in the Numbers.

I shall produce here a Passage out of the Kings, which is almost as incredible. When 1 Sam. xiv. 22.the Day of Battle (between the Israelites and Philistines) was come, there were none, Inconceivable Scarcity of Arms.except Saul, and Jonathan his Son, of all those who followed them, that had either Sword or Spear. Is it possible that there could, at any time, be such a scarcity of Arms in a brave, intrepid, and very warlike Nation? I can easily conceive how every private Jew might be obliged to furnish himself with Arms, and Provisions; there is nothing in this but what Reason and History authorize: Besides, their Wars were short, and were carried on, for the most part, in the Neighbourhood; so that the Expences which they were necessarily to be at, were not more than they could bear. But that all the Israelites should be unprovided with Arms upon a Day of Battle, is what it would be hard for any one to believe: for we do not find, in the sacred Writings, that the Philistines had ever had the Advantage of them, so far, as to be able to disarm the whole Nation. On the contrary, we see, that a little before the time when the Israelites are said to have had neither Sword nor Spear, three thousand Men of the Children of Israel, and thirty 1 Sam. xi. 8.thousand of the Tribe of Judah, entred the Camp of the Ammonites by break of day, and never ceased doing Execution upon them, till the Sun was in its greatest Heat. Ibid. ver. 18.And, still later, Saul drove the Philistines from Michmash; and Jonathan, with a thousand Men, beat their Garison, which Ibid. xiii. 23.was at Gibeah. It is manifest that these great Defeats, and several others, could not be given without the help of Arms. All this was transacted in the space of two Years; that is to say, from the Inauguration of Saul, to the War with the Philistines, at the Sight of whom, as the Scripture observes, the Hebrews were terrified, and hid Ibid. xiv. 11.themselves in Holes: not only by reason of the great Forces of the Enemy, but because they were all, except Saul and Jonathan, without Arms. What then had become of all the Arms with which the Israelites had, for two Years, carried on the great Expeditions above-mentioned; did they all, on a sudden, vanish away?

1 Sam. xiii. 19, 20.But it will be said the sacred Author informs us, Now there was no Smith found thro’out all the Land of Israel: (for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them Swords or Spears) But all the Israelites went down to the Philistines, to sharpen every Man his Share, and his Coulter, and his Ax, and his Mattock.

This, indeed, is plain; but we do not find that this continued after the Advantages gained by Saul over the Philistines, in the beginning of his Reign. Besides, the Scripture is not to be contradicted; and that affirms Saul, a Month after his Election, to have had, as we have already observed, an Army of three hundred and thirty thousand Men all well armed, who cut in pieces the Ammonites, a People that had hitherto been always superior to them. These Arms were not all taken away from them; consequently, they could not be in so great a want on this score, as some would persuade us. I believe, indeed, that they were not so well provided as might have been wished; which, in my opinion, is all that the Scripture means.

I grant our learned Commentator, that the Precaution of the Philistines, in denying the Hebrews the Use of Arms, and hindring them from having Smiths in their Country, is not so extraordinary: Without doubt it is not, provided that by Smiths we understand Artificers appointed to forge Arms only; but to suppose such People to be meant, as prepare and fashion Instruments, and Utensils, proper for the Cultivation of Lands, and fit for the common Occasions of Life, is wresting the Sense of Scripture, and producing an Example of Servitude unheard of, in all Ages: such a Servitude as can be good for nothing but to raise Rebellions, and such as would have been contrary to the Interests of the Conquerors; for, in short, the Conquered must live, and cultivate their Lands, that so they may be enabled to pay their Conquerors the Taxes which they think fit to lay upon them. The only Possibility there was for the Israelites to subsist and pay such Tributes, was by cultivating their Lands: and how could these be cultivated without Instruments, and necessary Utensils? The Philistines, it will be said, had taken upon them to supply and mend them, as often as they were bad, and either worn or broken. The Objection is founded upon Scripture; but the Philistines were not every where, and there is no probability that they should oblige the Israelites, who were at the distance of many days Journey from their Cities, to come thither to buy, or only mend their Instruments and Implements of Husbandry. It is still less probable, that all the Israelites were so stupid as not to know themselves how to sharpen or mend a Scythe, a Plowshare, and other the like Utensils. I shall say no more of this Article, for fear of being too prolix: The Reader may consult F. Calmet’s Comment upon the first Book of Samuel, chap. xiii. Let us now come to the way of Ranging themselves in Order, and Fighting.

Phalanx, its Original uncertain.The most ancient, the most simple, and most perfect Way of Drawing up, and Fighting, was that of forming Troops into a Phalanx. Whatever Authors may say of it, there is nothing certain as to the Original of it; which is unknown to us, as well as that of many Things put in practise that occur naturally to the Mind, and are founded upon the Rules of Reason and good Sense. Livy ascribes the Invention of the Phalanx to the Macedonians, and says it was peculiar to them. He calls it a square Batallion; he should say, an oblong Square, of large Extent, as our Bodies of Troops are, when they are drawn up in their Ranks: But there is no account to be made of what Livy, and others of the Ancients or Moderns say, who cannot fix the Original of Pha lanxes; for, to speak freely, this Order was known long before the Greeks and Macedonians.

But notwithstanding it is not agreed that these People were the Inventors of them, it must be acknowledged that they very much perfected them, principally under the Reign of Philip, the Father of Alexander: It is true, upon strict inquiry into History it appears, that all this Perfection consisted only in a more exact Observation of Discipline, in the Order which was established among the Troops, and in the keeping up of the Soldiers, and preserving carefully their Arms.

What the Phalanx was, and how drawn up.The Phalanx was, properly a Body of heavy-armed Foot, ranged in one Line, and of a great Depth: The Greeks form’d it commonly with sixteen in a File, sometimes fewer, according as Circumstances required; for where the Country was narrow, they doubled it, and fought then with their Ranks so close, that the Soldiers seemed joined together, and, as it were, glued to one another. Opinions are divided as to the Number of Soldiers which composed a Phalanx; some compute it at sixteen thousand, others make it consist of fewer Men: The Number, in the main, is nothing; so much is certain, that the Greeks called every body of Hoplitæ, or heavy-armed People, which was not under three or four thousand Men, a Phalanx. Thus Arrian divides the Infantry of Alexander the Great into eight Phalanxes, consisting each of four thousand Men, which, in all, made two and thirty thousand. Thucydides, and Polybius, allow but three or four thousand for a Phalanx: It is therefore a Mistake to think that it was made up of sixteen thousand, this Body being stronger or weaker, according to the Power of the several States and Princes.

Neither the People of Asia, nor the ancient Hebrews, were acquainted with the Name of Phalanx: nevertheless, they always drew up their Troops as the Greeks did; that is to say, in a Phalanx, which was divided into Batallions, sometimes of more, and at others of less force. We have said above, that these Batallions were split into Companies of an hundred, and of fifty, and subdivided into Parties, and half Parties, &c. which had all their Heads.

The military Discipline of the ancient Hebrews, as well as their Tacticks, was therefore the same with that of all the Asiatick People: It does not appear that the Egyptians followed any other, at least in the way of ranging themselves, and Tacit. de moribus Germanorum. fighting in great Bodies, and with an extreme Depth. Cyrus’s Army, at the Battle of Thymbraia, or Thyribara, was drawn up in this manner; and the Egyptians, who faced them, formed several full Squares, of ten thousand Men each. The Books of Moses and Joshua give us no particular Circumstances of any Battle, and, consequently, furnish us with no Lights as to the Tacticks observed in those Times; but, under the Judges, they begin to appear more evidently.

The Hebrew Soldiers, who were lightly The lightarmed Soldiers.armed, were placed at first in the whole Front of the Infantry; and, when the Armies were upon the point of Engaging, they passed between the Files, or little Intervals left on purpose, between the different Bodies which the Tribes formed, and drew up behind, from whence they discharged a Shower of Darts and Stones upon the Enemy. There is something, I think, surprizing in the Scripture upon this Subject: There came to David mighty Men, 1 Chron. xii. 1, 2. Their Dexterity.Helpers of the War. They were armed with Bows, and could use both the right Hand and the left, in hurling Stones, and shooting Arrows out of a Bow. It is added, that Ib. ver. 8.there came to him likewise Men that could handle Shield and Buckler, whose Faces were like the Faces of Lions, and were as swift as the Roes upon the Mountains. ” The Ancients,” says Dom. Calmet, ” commended a fierce and terrible ” Look in a Soldier: it was a Maxim ” with them, that the Eyes are first con- ” quered in a Battle ; Primi in omnibus ” præliis oculi vincuntur. Swiftness in ” Running was likewise a Quality much ” valued by them.” How the heavy-armed were disposed.As to the heavy-armed People, we should distinguish Times; for under the Kings, they were very different from what they were under Moses and Joshua: We are very sure that we do not know whether in the Time of Moses and Joshua every Tribe was divided into many Bodies, distributed into Regiments and Companies, or whether they each formed but one Body of Foot. If the Rabbins are to be credited in this Point, the Generals placed the most valiant Subaltern Officers behind the Ranks, armed with Scythes and Battle-Axes, to cut those in pieces who should first make a shew of flying: but this is very dubious. We may be sure of this, that the Israelites then drew up in one Line, and with a very great Depth, according to the Method of the Asiaticks; especially of the Egyptians, who fought with thirty, and perhaps more in a File, in full Squares, with as many in Depth, as Front, with their Ranks, Files, and Bucklers so close, that the Soldiers left no more space between them than was necessary for the making use of their Arms. Notwithstanding, they left small Small Spaces left between the Tribes.Passages between every Tribe for those who carried the General’s Orders, for the light-armed to slip thro’, and for conveying away the Wounded. This enormous Mass of Infantry was so well trained, that one might have thought it to be but one Body, which made but one and the same Movement to march against the Enemy.

All the Forces of the Hebrews, in these earlier Times, consisted therefore in Foot, who bravely attacked the Enemy’s Horse, which they valued but little. But, at last, the time came, under the Kings, when they The Cavalry upon the Wings.had Horse, and according to the Method, which I believe to be as ancient as the Original of Cavalry, they threw them upon the Wings. We find, however, in Scripture, that this Maxim was not always observed. John, the Son of Simon, in the Battle which he fought with Cendebrus, placed his Horse Cavalry at the Center.in the Center, and threw his Foot upon the Wings: a Stratagem, the Success whereof was owing as well to the Novelty of the Order of Battle, as to the Prudence of it; for the Wings of an Army being generally attacked first, particularly in a Plain, it is always proper to cover them with the most vigorous and formidable of their Troops, and to sustain the weaker with the stronger. It is certain that the Novelty of this Order of Battle amazed the Enemy’s Infantry, and confounded Cendebrus, when he found that he had John’s whole Cavalry to deal with, which bore down his Foot, while the Infantry of the Jews broke thro’ his Horse, and put them to flight; for, as I have already said, the Jewish Foot engaged the Horse without any concern, and if they could once make a Breach in them, they were sure of Victory: so much Power and Advantage is there in Valour, and a daring Resolution, when conducted with Art. So that there is no disproportion of Force wherever there is Capacity; and the smaller Number, drawn up and led on skilfully, always gets the better of the greater, when the Disposition of the latter is managed with less Art and Cunning.

I have already observed, that the Israelites did not begin to use Cavalry till the Reign of their Kings; and I find nothing in Scripture that informs us of the manner how the Horse fought: but, as we have Proofs that they followed the same Rules in drawing up their Troops as the Asiatick People, and the Egyptians their Neighbours, I am persuaded that they disposed their Cavalry in large Squadrons, of The Cavalry drawn up in large Squadrons. The Maccabees change often their way of Fighting, as the Case required.six or eight hundred Horse, with a Depth equal to the Front, and little Intervals between them.

I shall say nothing here of the Capacity and Valour of the Hebrew Generals, but refer the Reader to the Observations upon the Battles which they often won, and lost rarely: They are to be seen under their different Articles in the Dictionary. I will confess, however, that tho we may find great Men under the Kings, the Times of the Maccabees abound more in Heroes, and in surprizing and memorable Events.

This is all, in general, that can be said of the Hebrew Tacticks: Yet notwithstanding, what we have said of their observing the same Method as the Asiaticks, and their Neighbours, with whom they often were at war, this does not hinder but that they sometimes might depart from it. In reality, the Maccabees, who always signalized themselves, made great Changes in the Method which they found established before them: We need only read what the Scripture tells us of Judas, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Simon, all Men of great Fame and Reputation, and whose very Names produce the Idea in our Minds of an excellent General; we need only read, I say, to be convinced that they often, and very seasonably, as occasion required, changed the way of Fighting practised by their Ancestors. The Weakness and inconsiderable Number of their Troops, was what forced them to these Alterations; for they had often but an handful of Men to oppose against very powerful Enemies, and Armies that were terrible and innumerable. Of what use, would then, the Phalanx have been to them? They therefore left it, and fought in separate Bodies of an extreme Depth, and very small Front, which formed a perfect Column. They drew up in this manner, when their Weakness would not allow them to make head against their Enemies with a Front equal to theirs: And this they did with a design of breaking thro’ the Line in different Places; in which Attempts they always were successful, by reason of the Weight and very great depth of the Files, the Bottom whereof was scarce visible.

The Maxim of fighting in separate Bodies, or several large Columns, is not derived absolutely from the Maccabees, but was practised many Ages before them. Under the Judges, the Hebrews fought in this manner against numerous Armies; witness, the two Battles between Abimelech and the Judg. ix. 30, &c.Sichemites: And, under the Kings, Kings, Saul attacked the Camp of the Ammonites, before Jabesh-Gilead, in three 1 Sam. xi. 11.different Places.

We do not find in History that any People, before Cyrus, made war with more Art and Understanding than the Hebrews: their Movements and Conduct, at those Times, were admirable; many of their Generals had particular Ways of drawing up their Troops, and fighting, comparable to what the greatest of the Greek and Roman Captains have executed in this kind.

Joab’s surprizing Victory. 2 Sam. x. 7, &c.The Victory of Medeba, obtained by Joab over the two confederate Armies of the Ammonites and Syrians, raises extremely my Admiration. Can any thing, in reality, be imagined to be bolder, more skilfully concerted, and better conducted? I have been particular in the Circumstances of this great Action under its Article in the Dictionary; and in the third Tome of my Comment upon Polybius, where I compare it with that of Telamon, between the Romans and the Gauls. The last of these being engaged between two Roman Armies, and, consequently, obliged to fight with two Fronts, divided their Army in two, to make head against the Enemy on both sides. But it was mere Chance only that reduced them to this Extremity, for they had no intention to be so penn’d up: Joab, on the contrary, having formed the Design of encountering, at the same time, the Ammonites and Syrians, and of obtaining two Victories at once, got purposely between them both; so much did he depend upon the Valour of his Troops, and upon his own Experience. I do not believe History furnishes any Action like it; it is the only one in its kind, and above all Commendations.

Jonathan’s very remarkable Victory. 1 Macc. x. 77, &c.The Victory of Azotus, obtained by Jonathan over Apollonius, is likewise incomparable, and shews what the Force of Infantry will do. Jonathan finding himself hemm’d in by a numerous Army of Horse and Foot, form’d his Troops into an oblong Square of an extraordinary Depth, facing both sides; and, while Apollonius’s Horse, intermixed with the light-armed, was surrounding him, he fell with so much Force and Vigour upon the Enemy’s Foot, that he made way thro’ them, and cut them in pieces.

Here was a great Action, and a very particular Order of Battle. It was very difficult to break this Batallion in an oblong Square, because of the great Depth of its Files; but, at the same time, this Body so dispos’d, was very proper to bear down the Enemy by reason of its Weight, and the Violence of the Onset. This General’s Behaviour, upon the Occasion here mentioned, was not then common, at least, none like it was ever taken notice of in Scripture; and it gives us as great an Idea of his Courage and Capacity, who was the Author of it, as of the good Discipline of the Troops commanded by him.

Military Harangues before the Battle.The Israelites had likewise a Method, which was common to them with all the People in the World, and the Original whereof was, in my opinion, as ancient as the Trade of War; and this was the Custom of Haranguing, practised by the General when he was upon the point of giving Battle: These Harangues had a great share in the Success of the Day, and contributed often to the winning of the Battle. The Greek and Roman Historians abound with Pieces of this kind, but they are too long and elaborate to believe they were Originals. There are none but those reported in the Scripture which seem natural; the Terms wherein they are conceived, carry a certain Mark of Truth, which afflicts and strikes us; they are short, but lively, moving, and full of pious Sentiments. The Custom of haranguing Troops, has continued down to these latter Ages. The last military Harangue was that of Charles XII. King of Sweden, made by him at the Battle of Nerva, which was fought very near the time wherein we are now living.

Proclamation of a particular Nature at the Head of the Batallions.Besides the Harangues we have been speaking of, the Hebrews made a Proclamation of a singular Kind at the Head of every Batallion, with a Purpose of engaging all those, who had any particular reason to be under Apprehensions to retire. It is to be seen in the xxth Chapter of Numbers, the 5th, and following Verses. After this, they who staid with the Army were drawn up in order of Battle. The Practice of all this may be seen in the Maccabees.

Signal for Incamping, Decamping, or Fighting, by sound of Trumpets. Numb. x. 8.The Signal for Incamping, Decamping, and Fighting, was given by the different Sounds of Trumpets: This was the Function of the Priests, from whence it follows that they were all Trumpeters. The Priests, the Sons of Aaron, shall blow with the Trumpets, says Moses; and they shall be to them for an Ordinance for ever thro’out your Generations. And if ye go to war in your Land against the Enemy that oppresseth you, then ye shall blow an Alarm with the Trumpets; and ye shall be remembred before the Lord your God, and ye shall be saved from your Enemies.

There never was any People, besides the Hebrews, who employed their Priests in sounding the Charge: When the Battle was to begin, they met in great numbers, and formed a Rank behind the Line. This Practice afterwards ceased; especially after the Maccabees, when it grew, insensibly, into a Custom not to summon the Priests any more to the Army, in order to blow the Trumpets. All People made use of this Instrument in War, except the Lacedæmonians, who had Flutes; at the Sound whereof, they marched, and Horns differ from Trumpets.fought. “We should not confound “ the Trumpets we have been speaking “ of,” says Dom. Calmet, “ which the “ Priests only had a right to sound, with “ the Horn made use of by the Generals, “ to gather together their Troops, and “ give the Signal of Retreat.” Encomium of the Maccabees.Before we conclude, let us say something of the Maccabees in particular. From the Reign of David, down to them, the Hebrews had considerable Wars to carry on. We find a great deal of Valour in the Soldiers, but no Generals comparable to these Heroes of God’s People. The Scripture is clear, and particular in the Recital of their Actions, of their way of Ranging themselves in order, and Fighting: Marches, Battles, Retreats, Passages of Rivers, assaulting of Camps, Intrenchments, surprizing of Armies, Wars in the Mountains, Stratagems in the Art of attacking and defending, Sieges, storming of Towns; in a word, every thing that is most sublime, and great in the Science of War, is here collected, and, in them, Patterns proposed to us for all the different Parts of War. Whether they were opposed by formidable and well-disciplin’d Troops, or had to do with able and very experienc’d Generals, or their Forces were infinitely inferior to those of their Enemies, and not to be compared with them, all this was to no purpose, nothing could check or discourage them: They were always victorious; so much does Valour, Resolution, and good Conduct, always carry it before the greater Number. They fought, indeed, for the Lord’s Cause, and against the Enemies of their Religion; wherefore they placed all their Confidence in God, who favoured them, and inspired the Soldiers with an intrepid Courage.

Their Actions are very instructive to Soldiers.The Actions of these great Men are numerous in the Scripture, and abound with admirable and profound Instructions: Soldiers should make them their study, for there is great advantage to be reaped from them. In their time, the Science of Arms flourished in almost all Parts of the World. The Greeks, as yet, had not degenerated from their Ancestors; they had great Captains, as well as the Romans: and Asia was not without them. Why there is so little mention of the Jews in the Greek Historians. It is surprizing that Polybius should make no mention of the Maccabees. 1 Macc. vi. & seq. 1 Macc. iv. 3, &c.But I am very much surprized at one thing, which is, that Polybius, a contemporary Author, should make no mention of the Wars of the Maccabees, especially against Antiochus the Great; since his Account of the Affairs of Asia is long, and circumstantial: My Wonder is very much encreased, when I consider, that there are memorable Actions, and surprizing Defeats, whereof, notwithstanding, he says not one word. For example, how came the Battle of Beth-Zacharias, between Judas Maccabeus and Antiochus Eupator, to escape him, since he relates the Wars of the three Antiochus’s? Is that of Emmaus, between the same Judas and Nicanor, at all less remarkable? The same may be said of many others: Polybius overlooks them all, and takes no more notice of the Maccabees than if they never had existed.

The Greeks, indeed, have spoken of the Jews, but Greeks more modern than Polybius. It appears, by their Writings, that they had some knowledge of this Nation: Nor is this extraordinary, since they were not very remote from them; nevertheless, it is very certain that their Knowledge of them was very imperfect. If any one ask the reason of this, it will be answered, that the Hebrews had no great Commerce with the western People; that, besides, they were unacquainted almost with every thing that we call Trade, Fairs, and Markets: to which we may add, that their Religion forbad them to have any great Correspondence with Strangers, upon pain of contracting legal Impurities; wherefore they ate, and communicated with People only of their own Persuasion. These Answers, however, are not satisfactory; for, altho it be true, that the Jews had little or no Intercourse with other Nations, yet this was not the Case of their Neighbours, especially the several People with whom they were so often at war. These were, certainly, very well known by the Greeks; and their Historians, Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius, and many others, speak frequently of them, and treat of their Interests: which, notwithstanding, one might think they could not do, without making express mention of the Jews. How comes it then that they have not, particularly Polybius, who was so very well informed in all the different Wars carried on by Antiochus? This is a Paradox, which I propose, that some or other may resolve it.

We shall conclude our Remarks with observing to the Reader, that if we have Conclusion: The Jews had regular and methodical Tacticks.omitted many Things, or passed others over cursorily, it is because we have explained TACTICKS of the HEBREWS. explained them more at large in the Observations which lie dispersed in the Dictionary of the Bible; and because every thing here said by us, is inserted only in the way of Supplement to Dom. Calmet’s learned Dissertation concerning the Militia of the ancient Hebrews. Besides, it was principally designed by us to convince those, who were prejudiced against this Nation, that the Art of War was very well understood by it; that the Jews had regular and methodical Tacticks, and observed them against their Enemies upon all Occasions, wherein they found it possible to practise them.