Chapter V. On the perfections of the first figure.

CHAPTER V. On the perfections of the first figure.

But from the things said before it is clear that all syllogisms which are perfect in this figure need nothing outside themselves for their perfection, for they are all perfected through being-said-of-every-one and being-said-of-none. And therefore also in the first figure the major must always be universal, because the syllogistic running-through begins from the major. But syllogizing reason runs through only from the universal to the particular. Hence for the major to be particular would not agree with the principles, which are being-said-of-every-one and being-said-of-none. Yet there is also another cause of this, why in the first figure the major must always be universal and the minor affirmative: because if the major could be particular, then it could happen that the middle would be predicated of the greater extreme, because the inferior is predicated of the superior particularly, both affirmatively and negatively, as "some animal is man" and "some animal is not man." And if it were so, it could happen that, when the major proposition is negative, the extremes would be convertible, or would stand as exceeding and exceeded; and then no negative conclusion could follow except a false one, which is unfitting. But the terms in which this occurs are man, animal, risible, syllogizing thus: some animal is not man; every risible is animal; therefore some risible is man or is not man, although it is agreed that every risible is a man. It could also happen that, when the major is affirmative, the extremes would be disparate, of which neither is predicated of the other; and then no conclusion could follow except a false one. And the terms of this consequence are man, animal, ass, syllogizing thus: some animal is man; every ass is animal; no affirmative conclusion can be inferred except a false one. Therefore this is the cause why the major must always be universal and the minor affirmative in this figure.

Therefore all syllogisms of this figure are perfect, both universal and particular; and they are perfected through those things which were stated from the beginning of this book, namely through being-said-of-every-one and through being-said-of-none. And although in this figure there are still found five modes of those concluding indirectly, and therefore of imperfect syllogisms, we shall make no mention of them here; but in what follows, where we shall posit imperfect syllogisms, we shall also make mention of syllogisms of this kind.

It is also manifest that all problems are shown through this figure. Through it belonging to every one is shown in the first mode, and through it belonging to no one is shown in the second mode, and through it belonging to some is shown through the third mode, and through it not belonging to some is shown through the fourth. But I call the first figure of this kind the one which in the major proposition subjects the middle, and in the minor predicates it.

Nor can there be a figure which in the major predicates the middle and in the minor subjects it, because, since the middle in this figure is between the extremes, the middle must be taken under the greater extreme, and the lesser extreme must be taken under the middle. And because the major must be universal, all the propositions would be false if the middle were predicated in the major, as this one, "every animal is man"; and if it were subjected in the minor, again the universals will be false; and thus a true and universal conclusion would not be concluded, which would be very unfitting in the most perfect of figures¹.